必备要素：名词与动词
Nouns and verbs are two of the most basic and important concepts in grammar. 名词和动词是语法中最基本、最重要的概念之二。
SUBJECTS AND NOUNS
主语与名词
In the sentences we’ve seen, the simple subjects are all nouns. This traditional definition of nouns will serve our purpose: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. 在我们见过的句子中，简单主语都是名词。下面这个关于名词的传统定义足以满足我们的需要： 名词是表示人、地点、事物或概念的词。
Nouns name persons: man, woman, child, children, student, teacher, Mr. Morton, Oscar Hammerstein. 名词表示人：man、woman、child、children、student、teacher、Mr. Morton、Oscar Hammerstein。
They name places: kitchen, home, Main Street, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., North America, Earth, solar system, the Milky Way. 名词表示地点：kitchen、home、Main Street、St. Louis、Missouri、U.S.A.、North America、Earth、solar system、the Milky Way。
They name things: pen, ink, paper, printing press, telegraph, linotype, typewriter, computer, smart phone, internet. 名词表示事物：pen、ink、paper、printing press、telegraph、linotype、typewriter、computer、smart phone、internet。
Nouns also name ideas—that, is, abstractions: science, mathe- matics, truth, beauty, democracy, Platonism, Catholicism, Calvinism. 名词也表示概念——即抽象事物：science、mathematics、truth、beauty、democracy、Platonism、Catholicism、Calvinism。
Most simple subjects are nouns. 大多数简单主语都是名词。
PREDICATES AND VERBS
谓语与动词
In any sentence, the simple predicate is a verb—an indispens- able part of English sentences. For our purposes, this definition will do: A verb is a word or group of words that names an action or indicates a state of being. 在任何句子中，简单谓语都是一个动词——这是英语句子不可或缺的部分。就我们的目的而言，下面这一定义就足够了： 动词是表示动作或表明存在状态的词或词组。
There are two general classes of verb. One kind of verb—an action verb—names actions: 动词大致分为两类。一类动词——动作动词（action verb）——表示动作：
Hammerstein composed. George loves Ethel. Pearl painted Mr. Morton’s porch. Hammerstein composed.（汉默斯坦创作了乐曲。）George loves Ethel.（乔治爱着埃塞尔。）Pearl painted Mr. Morton’s porch.（珀尔粉刷了莫顿先生家的大门廊。）
Another kind of verb names “states of being”—that is, they appear in predicates that describe the subject. These verbs are called linking verbs. 另一类动词表示"存在状态"——也就是说，它们出现在描述主语的谓语中。这类动词被称为系动词（linking verbs）。
Gershwin was a composer. George became thoughtful. Pearl seems busy. Gershwin was a composer.（格什温是一位作曲家。）George became thoughtful.（乔治变得若有所思。）Pearl seems busy.（珀尔似乎很忙。）
There are thousands of verbs in English, and the great majority of them are action verbs: *sit, stand, hit, run, hide, seek, say, sing, * *create, declare, denounce, pontificate, shout, cry, laugh, *and all the rest. 英语中有成千上万个动词，其中绝大多数是动作动词：sit、stand、hit、run、hide、seek、say、sing、create、declare、denounce、pontificate、shout、cry、laugh，以及其余所有动词。
Some action verbs name activities that are not actions in the usual sense: have, pause, think, consider, wait. 有些动作动词所表示的"活动"在通常意义上并非动作：have、pause、think、consider、wait。
There are relatively few linking verbs in English. The most common are the eight forms of the verb be: 英语中的系动词相对较少。最常见的是动词 be 的八种形式：
be are been is being was am were be are been is being was am were （以上为动词 be 的八种形式。）
It’s helpful to commit all the forms of be to memory, because you’ll need to recognize them again and again in this book and in other works about English grammar. 记住 be 的所有形式很有帮助，因为你在本书以及其他关于英语语法的著作中，都需要反复识别这些形式。
Here are some of the other linking verbs*: seem, become, * remain. Many linking verbs are related to our senses: look, feel, * smell, sound, taste, appear: 下面是其他一些系动词：seem、become、remain。许多系动词与我们的感官有关：look、feel、smell、sound、taste、appear：
Bill looked angry. Bill sounded angry. Bill felt** **angry. The kitchen smelled wonderful. The soup tasted good. Bill looked angry.（比尔看起来很生气。）Bill sounded angry.（比尔听起来很生气。）Bill felt angry.（比尔感到生气。）The kitchen smelled wonderful.（厨房闻起来很棒。）The soup tasted good.（这汤尝起来不错。）
The examples of linking verbs may seem confusing because some verbs can be used as action verbs (Bob appeared suddenly) or as linking verbs (Bob appeared ill). 系动词的例子可能令人困惑，因为有些动词既可用作动作动词（Bob appeared suddenly / 鲍勃突然出现），也可用作系动词（Bob appeared ill / 鲍勃看起来病了）。
To clarify the differences, consider the following pairs of sentences. The first sentence in each pair contains a linking verb; the second contains an action verb: 为澄清区别，请看下面几组句子对。每对中第一句含有系动词，第二句含有动作动词：
Frank felt well. Frank felt the cold air. Marsha looked wonderful. Marsha looked out the window. The tomatoes tasted sweet. We tasted the tomatoes. Frank felt well. Frank felt the cold air. （弗兰克感觉良好。/ 弗兰克感觉到冷空气。） Marsha looked wonderful. Marsha looked out the window. （玛莎看起来很棒。/ 玛莎向窗外望去。） The tomatoes tasted sweet. We tasted the tomatoes. （这些西红柿尝起来很甜。/ 我们品尝了这些西红柿。）
Ed remained stubborn. Ed remained in his room. Ed remained stubborn.（埃德依然固执。）Ed remained in his room.（埃德待在他的房间里。）
In each pair, the first sentence with the linking verb describes the subject in some way. The second sentence with the action verb tells us what the subject did. Many of the words that follow the verbs are not modifiers but other kinds of words that we’ll learn about soon. 在每一对中，含系动词的第一句以某种方式描述主语；含动作动词的第二句则告诉我们主语做了什么。动词后面的许多词并不是修饰语，而是我们很快就会学到的其他词类。
AUXILIARY VERBS AND MAIN VERBS
助动词与主动词
Compare the verbs in these pairs of sentences: 比较下列各对句子中的动词：
Mr. Morton broke the vase. Mr. Morton has broken another vase. Jeff sang an old Irish song. Jeff should have sung an old Lithuanian song. Martha won the race. Martha should have been winning all along. Mr. Morton broke the vase. Mr. Morton has broken another vase. （莫顿先生打碎了花瓶。/ 莫顿先生又打碎了另一个花瓶。） Jeff sang an old Irish song. Jeff should have sung an old Lithuanian song. （杰夫唱了一首古老的爱尔兰歌曲。/ 杰夫本该唱一首古老的立陶宛歌曲。） Martha won the race. Martha should have been winning all along. （玛莎赢了比赛。/ 玛莎本该一路领先才对。）
In the second sentence of each pair, the simple predicate consists of more than one verb. In any sentence, the verb can be one to four words long: 在每对的第二句中，简单谓语由不止一个动词组成。在任何句子中，动词的长度可以是一到四个词：
Mr. Morton broke the vase. Mr. Morton has broken another vase. Mr. Morton has been breaking vases all afternoon. Mr. Morton should not have been juggling vases. Mr. Morton broke the vase. Mr. Morton has broken another vase. Mr. Morton has been breaking vases all afternoon. Mr. Morton should not have been juggling vases. （莫顿先生打碎了花瓶。/ 莫顿先生又打碎了另一个花瓶。/ 莫顿先生整个下午都在打碎花瓶。/ 莫顿先生本不该一直抛接花瓶。）
In any sentence with two or more words in the verb, the rightmost verb is called the main verb. In the four sentences just above, broke, broken, breaking, and juggling are the main verbs. 在任何由两个或更多词构成的动词中，最右边的动词称为主要动词（main verb）。在上面的四个句子中，broke、broken、breaking 和 juggling 都是主要动词。
All the other words in the underlined verb are auxiliary verbs (sometimes called helping verbs). Together the auxiliary verbs and the main verb make the simple predicate, which is the entire verb of the sentence. The simple predicate can be one to four words long and includes only the main verb (which is always present) and its auxiliary verbs (if any). 下划线动词中的所有其他词都是助动词（auxiliary verbs，有时称为 helping verbs）。助动词与主要动词共同构成简单谓语，即句子的整个动词。简单谓语的长度可以是一到四个词，且只包含主要动词（始终存在）及其助动词（如有）。
It is the main verb that determines if the simple predicate is an action verb or linking verb. 决定简单谓语是动作动词还是系动词的，正是主要动词。
Here’s a list of the auxiliary verbs in English: 以下是英语中的助动词列表：
am are is was were be been being have has had do does did can could shall should will would may might must am are is was were be been being have has had do does did can could shall should will would may might must （以上分别是 be、have、do、情态助动词以及 may/might/must 的各类形式。）
There are eight forms of be, three forms of have, three forms of do, three rhyming pairs (can/could; shall/should; will/would), and three *m- *verbs. Sometimes words like ought to and have to are included among the auxiliaries. We’ll discuss those later in Chapter 20. be 有八种形式，have 有三种形式，do 有三种形式，三组押韵对（can/could；shall/should；will/would），以及三个以 m 开头的动词。有时像 ought to 和 have to 这样的词也被归入助动词。我们会在第 20 章讨论它们。
You don’t have to memorize the entire list, but you should refer to it often until you can recognize auxiliary verbs when you see them. You should also learn all the forms of the verb *be *in the first column. 你不必记住整张列表，但应当经常查阅，直到一看到助动词就能辨认出来。你还应当掌握第一栏中动词 be 的所有形式。
Remember that auxiliary verbs always come before the main verb. Also notice that some auxiliaries can be used as main verbs: 记住，助动词总是位于主要动词之前。还要注意到，有些助动词本身也可以用作主要动词：
Rhianna was planning the party. Rhianna was early. [*Was *is the auxiliary.] [*Was *is the main verb.] Rhianna was planning the party. Rhianna was early. （蕾哈娜在筹划派对。/ 蕾哈娜到得早。） [*Was *is the auxiliary.]（[Was 是助动词。]） [*Was *is the main verb.]（[Was 是主要动词。]）
The Browns have purchased the gift. The Browns have the receipt. [Have is the auxiliary.] [Have is the main verb.] The Browns have purchased the gift. The Browns have the receipt. （布朗一家买了礼物。/ 布朗一家拿着收据。） [Have is the auxiliary.]（[Have 是助动词。]） [Have is the main verb.]（[Have 是主要动词。]）
The Greens do like reading. The Greens do the dishes every day. [Do is the auxiliary.] [Do is the main verb.] The Greens do like reading. The Greens do the dishes every day. （格林一家确实喜欢阅读。/ 格林一家每天洗碗。） [Do is the auxiliary.]（[Do 是助动词。]） [Do is the main verb.]（[Do 是主要动词。]）
Still other auxiliaries in the list are used only as auxiliaries, as in these examples: 列表中的其他一些助动词仅用作助动词，如下例：
Al can go. Al could go. Al will go. Al would go. Al shall go. Al should just go. Hal may go. Hal might tango. No, Hal must go. Al can go. Al could go. Al will go. Al would go. Al shall go. Al should just go. （阿尔能去。/ 阿尔本可以去。/ 阿尔会去。/ 阿尔就应当去。/ 阿尔该走了。/ 阿尔真该走。） Hal may go. Hal might tango. No, Hal must go. （哈尔可以去。/ 哈尔也许会跳探戈。/ 不，哈尔必须走。）
Notice that many of the auxiliaries are present or past forms: *Could, should, *and would are the past forms of *can, shall, and * will. We see this usage in sentences like this: 注意，许多助动词有现在时或过去时形式：could、should 和 would 分别是 can、shall 和 will 的过去式。我们可以从这样的句子中看出这种用法：
My uncle can play the harmonica well. My late uncle could play the harmonica well. My uncle can play the harmonica well.（我叔叔很会吹口琴。）My late uncle could play the harmonica well.（我已故的叔叔很会吹口琴。）
In Chapter 20, we’ll see some of these same words used as modal auxiliaries, which often indicate a future possible action: 在第 20 章，我们会看到其中一些同样的词用作情态助动词（modal auxiliaries），它们通常表示将来可能发生的动作：
If you practiced, you could play the harmonica well. If you practiced, you could play the harmonica well.（如果你练习过，你就能把口琴吹得很好。）
The verb do is also worth a bit of attention, because we use it in English as an auxiliary for questions and for emphasis: 动词 do 也值得稍加留意，因为在英语中我们用它作助动词，用于疑问句和表示强调：
Does Paula write well? Yes, Paula does write well. Did Paula arrive early? Yes, Paula did arrive early. Does Paula write well? Yes, Paula does write well. （葆拉写得好吗？是的，葆拉确实写得好。） Did Paula arrive early? Yes, Paula did arrive early. （葆拉到得早吗？是的，葆拉确实到得早。）
When you’re learning another language and want to translate an English sentence that uses do for a question or for emphasis, you’ll probably find that other languages don’t use their equivalent of do in this way. 当你学习另一种语言，并想翻译一个用 do 来构成疑问句或表示强调的英语句子时，你可能会发现其他语言并不这样使用与 do 对等的词。
Sometimes the complete verb is interrupted by another word or two. These usually appear after the first auxiliary verb: 有时，整个动词会被另外一两个词打断。这些词通常出现在第一个助动词之后：
Mr. Morton has actually broken another vase. Mr. Morton should probably not have been juggling vases. We will definitely not be inviting Mr. Morton back. Mr. Morton has actually broken another vase. Mr. Morton should probably not have been juggling vases. We will definitely not be inviting Mr. Morton back. （莫顿先生实际上又打碎了一个花瓶。/ 莫顿先生大概本不该一直抛接花瓶。/ 我们绝对不会再邀请莫顿先生回来了。）
The words that interrupt the verb are adverbs, which we’ll learn about shortly. 打断动词的那些词是副词（adverbs），我们很快就会学到。
POINTS FOR WRITERS
写给写作者的要点
1. Subject-verb agreement.
1. 主谓一致。
One of the most basic features of English is that the form of the verb sometimes changes to match a change in the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb will have one form: 英语最基本的特征之一是，动词的形式有时会随之改变，以与主语的变化保持一致。如果主语是单数，动词会采用一种形式：
Pam sings. Mom drives. Ed listens. Pam sings.（帕姆唱歌。）Mom drives.（妈妈开车。）Ed listens.（埃德倾听。）
But if the subject is plural, the verb may take another form: 但如果主语是复数，动词可能采用另一种形式：
Pam and Jim sing. Mom and Dad drive. Ed and Alice listen. Pam and Jim sing.（帕姆和吉姆唱歌。）Mom and Dad drive.（妈妈和爸爸开车。）Ed and Alice listen.（埃德和爱丽丝倾听。）
The change in the verb for singular and plural subjects is called subject-verb agreement. The verb must agree with the subject. 动词因主语单复数而发生的变化，称为主谓一致（subject-verb agreement）。动词必须与主语一致。
Agreement doesn’t make the verb change in every case. For instance, the verb doesn’t change form when the sentence is about something that happened in the past: 一致并不总会使动词改变形式。例如，当句子讲述过去发生的事时，动词并不改变形式：
Pam sang. Pam and Jim sang. Mom drove. Mom and Dad drove. Ed listened. Ed and Alice listened. Pam sang. Pam and Jim sang. （帕姆唱了歌。/ 帕姆和吉姆唱了歌。） Mom drove. Mom and Dad drove. （妈妈开了车。/ 妈妈和爸爸开了车。） Ed listened. Ed and Alice listened. （埃德倾听了。/ 埃德和爱丽丝倾听了。）
If you’ve spoken English since you were young, you probably make the verb agree without even being aware of it because it’s second nature to you. We’ll look more closely at agreement in Chapter 9. 如果你从小就讲英语，你很可能下意识地就让动词保持了一致，因为这对你来说已是第二天性。我们将在第 9 章更仔细地考察一致问题。
2. May and can.
2. may 与 can。
As you may already know, there is an important difference between the auxiliary verbs may and can. May is often used to ask or grant permission or to indicate possibility: 正如你可能已经知道的，助动词 may 和 can 之间有一个重要区别。may 常用来询问或给予许可，或表示可能性：
May Jim leave the room? Yes, Jim may. Jim may leave, but he hasn’t decided. May Jim leave the room?（吉姆可以离开房间吗？）Yes, Jim may.（是的，吉姆可以。）Jim may leave, but he hasn’t decided.（吉姆可以离开，但他还没决定。）
Can is used to discuss ability: can 用来表示能力：
Can Jim reach the top shelf? I think he can. Can Jim reach the top shelf?（吉姆够得着最上面的架子吗？）I think he can.（我想他够得着。）
In everyday conversation, we often confuse can and may, and it seldom matters because our listeners can understand us in 在日常对话中，我们常常混淆 can 和 may，但这很少有关系，因为听众能在
the immediate context. In careful writing, the distinction may be important, and failing to observe it is sometimes seen as a mark of a careless writer. 当下的语境中理解我们。在严谨的写作中，这一区别可能很重要，而未能注意它有时会被视为粗心作者的标志。
EXERCISES
练习
**2a. **In the sentences below, underline the complete predicates. Then enclose the simple subjects and simple predicates in brackets, like this: 2a. 在下面的句子中，给完整谓语加下划线。然后把简单主语和简单谓语用方括号括起来，如下例：
[Sue] [did call] yesterday. [Sue] [did call] yesterday.
The family was having coffee.
那一家人正在喝咖啡。
The family was content.
那一家人很满足。
Without warning, John entered the room.
毫无预兆地，约翰走进了房间。
John made an announcement.
约翰发布了一项声明。
The vases are gone.
花瓶都不见了。
The family became furious.
那一家人变得怒不可遏。
Mr. Morton had struck again.
莫顿先生又出手了。
Mr. Morton had some nerve.
莫顿先生厚颜无耻。
Someday that man will regret his actions.
总有一天，那个人会为他的行为感到后悔。
Mr. Morton’s reputation has been damaged by these allegations.
莫顿先生的声誉已被这些指控所损害。
Everywhere people are hiding their vases.
各处的人们都在藏起他们的花瓶。
Mr. Morton seems a little strange.
莫顿先生似乎有点古怪。
**2b. **Now, in the sentences that you just examined, identify action verbs (with A) and linking verbs (with L), as in this example: 2b. 现在，在你刚才分析过的句子中，标出动作动词（用 A）和系动词（用 L），如下例：
[Sue] [did call] yesterday. (A) [Sue] [did call] yesterday. (A)
2c. Finally, identify the auxiliary verbs and the main verb in each sentence you’ve examined. Remember, if there’s only one verb, it must be the main verb. 2c. 最后，标出你已分析过的每个句子中的助动词和主要动词。记住，如果只有一个动词，那它必定是主要动词。