团聚时刻：连词、复合结构与从句

Like prepositions, conjunctions are connecting words. Broadly defined, conjunctions join one word or group of words with a similar word or group of words. There are two kinds. 像介词一样，连词是连接词。广义地说，连词把一个词或一组词与另一个相似的词或一组词连接起来。连词有两类。

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

并列连词

Coordinating conjunctions create** compound structures**: They connect two or more grammatically equivalent units of lan- guage: a word with a word, a phrase with a phrase, or one sentence with another sentence. In the below sentences, and is the coordi- nating conjunction: 并列连词构成复合结构：它们连接两个或多个语法上等价的语言单位：词与词、短语与短语，或一个句子与另一个句子。在下面的句子中，and 是并列连词：

I gave him time and money. (noun and noun) I gave promptly and generously. (adverb and adverb) The white and blue car is there. (adjective and adjective) We saw Ed and told him the news. (predicate and predicate) 我给了他时间和金钱。（名词和名词）我给得迅速而慷慨。（副词和副词）那辆蓝白相间的车在那儿。（形容词和形容词）我们看到了埃德并把消息告诉了他。（谓语和谓语）

Here are a few sentences with compound subjects. The conjunctions (and and or) are in bold, and one of the sentences contains a three-part compound subject: 下面是几个带有复合主语的句子。连词（and 和 or）以粗体显示，其中一个句子包含由三部分组成的复合主语：

You or I have to clean up this mess. 你或我得把这烂摊子收拾干净。

Mark Twain, Damon Runyon, and J.R.R. Tolkien are three of Sam’s favorite authors. 马克·吐温、达蒙·鲁尼恩和 J.R.R. 托尔金是萨姆最喜欢的三位作家。

All the king’s horses and all the king’s men are having egg sandwiches. 国王所有的马和所有的人都正在吃鸡蛋三明治。

These sentences contain compound verbs: 这些句子包含复合动词：

We hiked, swam and sailed until dark. 我们徒步、游泳并航行直到天黑。

You can behave or leave. 你可以守规矩或者离开。

I will sit and think and write all afternoon. 我会坐下来并思考并写一整个下午。

Here are sentences with compound prepositional phrases: 下面是带有复合介词短语的句子：

We can’t find the dog in the house or in the yard. 我们在房子里或院子里都找不到那只狗。

In the spring, through the summer, and into the fall, we work in the garden. 在春天、穿过夏天并进入秋天，我们在花园里劳作。

You can combine any of these structures into a single sentence, using (for example) a compound subject, a compound verb, and a compound predicate: 你可以把这些结构中的任意几种组合到一个句子里，例如使用复合主语、复合动词和复合谓语：

Jim and Sue planned and prepared the meal and cleaned up afterward. 吉姆和苏计划、并准备了饭菜并事后收拾干净。

All the compound structures above depend on just two coordinating conjunctions: and and or. In fact, there are only seven coordinating conjunctions in English, so it’s convenient to memorize them: 上面所有的复合结构都只依赖两个并列连词：and 和 or。事实上，英语中只有七个并列连词，所以把它们记住很方便：

for but and or nor yet so

There’s a well-known mnemonic (a memory trick) for remem- bering these conjunctions: The first letters of these seven words spell the word FANBOYS. 有一个著名的助记法（记忆技巧）来记住这些连词：这七个单词的首字母拼成了 FANBOYS 这个词。

THE CLAUSE AND THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

从句与复合句

Now we come to one of the most important terms in grammar: the clause. For our purposes in this chapter, we’ll use this definition: 现在我们来看语法中最重要的术语之一：从句。就本章而言，我们使用如下定义：

A clause is a unit of language that contains one subject and one predicate. 从句是包含一个主语和一个谓语的语言单位。

And yes, that definition sounds a good deal like our earlier tentative definition of a sentence. There’s overlap between the two definitions for a simple reason: Any complete sentence contains at least one clause. 是的，这个定义听起来很像我们之前对句子的初步定义。这两个定义有重叠，原因很简单：任何完整的句子都至少包含一个从句。

The seven coordinating conjunctions (the FANBOYS conjunc- tions) can join two or more clauses to create a larger structure called a compound sentence. To make the compound sentence, we select the conjunction that best communicates the relationship between the two clauses. 七个并列连词（FANBOYS 连词）可以把两个或多个从句连接起来，构成一个更大的结构，称为复合句。要构成复合句，我们要选择最能表达两个从句之间关系的连词。

For example, each of the following is a complete sentence and also a single clause: 例如，下面每一句都是一个完整的句子，同时也是一个单独的从句：

You will have to behave yourself. You will have to leave. 你必须守规矩。你将不得不离开。

With a coordinating conjunction, we can combine these two sentences into one sentence that contains two clauses: 用并列连词，我们可以把这两个句子合并成一个包含两个从句的句子：

You will have to behave yourself, or you will have to leave. 你必须守规矩，否则你将不得不离开。

The following are more compound sentences, made by com- bining two clauses—the last sentence contains three clauses—all joined by coordinating conjunctions: 下面是更多复合句，由连接两个从句构成——最后一个句子包含三个从句——全部由并列连词连接：

You have to leave, for you are not behaving yourself. 你必须离开，因为你没在守规矩。

You are not behaving yourself, so you will have to leave. 你没在守规矩，所以你将不得不离开。

Now you’re behaving, but you have to leave anyway. 现在你守规矩了，但是你无论如何都得离开。

You’re behaving now, yet you have to leave, and you can’t come back. 你现在守规矩了，然而你还是得离开，而且你不能回来。

(You’d be amazed how often people say things like that to grammar teachers.) （你会惊讶于人们竟如此频繁地对语法老师说出这样的话。）

The coordinating conjunction *nor, *when used to construct a compound sentence, is a bit unusual: It requires a negative word (such as not) in the first clause, and it often requires a special word order in the second clause. Nor makes an auxiliary verb move to a position before the subject: 并列连词 nor 在用于构成复合句时有点不寻常：它要求第一个从句中有否定词（如 not），并且通常要求第二个从句中有特殊的词序。nor 会使助动词移到主语之前的位置：

We do not want you to stay, nor do we want you to return. You may not stay, nor may you return. 我们不希望你留下，也不希望你能回来。你不可以留下，也不可以回来。

In these examples, nor makes the auxiliaries do and may shift to the left of the subjects (we and you). 在这些例子中，nor 使助动词 do 和 may 移到主语（we 和 you）的左边。

CORRELATIVE COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

关联并列连词

Correlatives are a special subclass of coordinating conjunctions. There are only four: 关联词是并列连词的一个特殊子类。只有四个：

Either . . . or Neither . . . nor Both . . . and Not only . . . but also

As you see, these correlative coordinating conjunctions consist of two parts, and the second part always contains one of the FANBOYS conjunctions: *or, nor, and, *or but. You’ve probably used them many times: 如你所见，这些关联并列连词由两部分组成，第二部分总是包含 FANBOYS 连词中的一个：or、nor、and 或 but。你可能已经用过很多次了：

Either Fred or George should clean up their mess. Neither Fred nor George cleaned up their mess. Both Fred and George are jerks. Fred and George are not only jerks, but also idiots. 要么弗雷德要么乔治应该收拾他们的烂摊子。弗雷德和乔治都没有收拾他们的烂摊子。弗雷德和乔治都是混蛋。弗雷德和乔治不仅是混蛋，还是白痴。

(Correlative conjunctions are very useful.) The correlatives work in other compound structures, like compound predicates: （关联连词非常有用。）关联词也适用于其他复合结构，如复合谓语：

Fred and George both need to straighten up and fly right. 弗雷德和乔治都需要改过自新并好好做人。

And *either . . . or *can join clauses to make compound sentences: 而 either . . . or 可以连接从句构成复合句：

Either Fred and George must behave, or they must go. 要么弗雷德和乔治必须守规矩，要么他们必须走。

Use not only . . . but also carefully. Inexperienced writers use the structure too often, or in ways that seem to imply that the first part of the compound structure is less important than the second portion. The writer may not intend to suggest that in these sentences: 使用 not only . . . but also 要小心。缺乏经验的写作者使用这种结构过于频繁，或者在使用方式上似乎暗示复合结构的第一部分不如第二部分重要。写作者可能并不想在下面的句子中表达这种意思：

She is not only a physician, but also a classical violinist. He is not only a Lutheran minister, but also a professional wrestler. 她不仅是一名内科医生，还是一名古典小提琴手。他不仅是一名路德教牧师，还是一名职业摔跤手。

If we don’t want to minimize the importance of being a physician or a minister, we should rewrite these sentences and leave out the not only part: 如果我们不想贬低当医生或牧师的重要性，就应该改写这些句子，去掉 not only 部分：

She is both a physician and a classical violinist. He is a Lutheran minister, and he is also a professional wrestler. 她既是一名内科医生，也是一名古典小提琴手。他是一名路德教牧师，而且他也是一名职业摔跤手。

The first sentence uses the correlative coordinating conjunction both . . . also. In the second sentence, *and *is simply a coordinating conjunction accompanied by the adverb also. 第一个句子使用了关联并列连词 both . . . also（注：原文如此，通常作 both . . . and）。在第二个句子中，and 只是一个并列连词，伴随副词 also。

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

从属连词

The second group of conjunctions are the** subordinating ** conjunctions, which are the larger group. (See what we did there? We used the comparative adjective.) There are about thirty or so. 第二类连词是从属连词，这一类数量更多。（看到我们刚才做了什么吗？我们用了比较级形容词。）大约有三十个左右。

These conjunctions are used to connect one clause to another to make a single longer sentence with two or more clauses. The new sentence has qualities that we don’t find in the compound sentences created by coordinating conjunctions. 这些连词用于把一个从句与另一个从句连接起来，构成一个含有两个或多个从句的更长句子。新句子具有我们在并列连词构成的复合句中找不到的特性。

The subordinating conjunction always appears at the beginning of one of the clauses. The clause begun this way is a subordinate ** clause. 从属连词总是出现在一个从句的开头。以这种方式开始的从句是一个从句**（subordinate clause，即从句/从属分句）。

Lists of the subordinating conjunctions vary from one gram- mar book to another, but the following list is reasonably complete. These are the one-word subordinating conjunctions: 从属连词的列表因语法书而异，但下面的列表相当完整。这些是单字从属连词：

after once when although since whenever as than where because that wherever before though whereas however till whether if unless while lest until

The following sentences each contain one subordinate clause; the conjunction is in bold: 下面的每个句子都包含一个从句；连词以粗体显示：

He left because he wanted to leave. I’ll go when I’m ready. We’ll let you know if she calls. I will find you wherever you go. 他离开是因为他想离开。我会在我准备好时去。如果她打电话，我们会通知你。无论你去哪里，我都会找到你。

Subordinate clauses are always adverbial, and they typically modify the verb, so they can often be moved around the sentence. They can be placed at the beginning or the end of the sentence: 从句总是作状语，并且通常修饰动词，所以它们常常可以在句子中移动。它们可以放在句子的开头或结尾：

Because he wanted to leave, he left. When I’m ready, I’ll go. If she calls, we’ll let you know. Wherever you go, I will find you. 因为他想离开，他离开了。当我准备好时，我会去。如果她打电话，我们会通知你。无论你去哪里，我都会找到你。

Notice that you can’t do the same thing with clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions. You can certainly use a coordinating conjunction to join two independent clauses: 注意，你不能用并列连词连接的从句做同样的事。你当然可以用并列连词连接两个独立从句：

He was ready to leave, so he left. 他准备好离开了，所以他离开了。

But you can’t move the second clause (including the conjunc- tion) to the beginning of the sentence: 但是你不能把第二个从句（包括连词）移到句子的开头：

WRONG: So he left, he was ready to leave. 错误：所以他离开了，他准备好离开了。

The movability of subordinate clauses is a useful feature. It helps us identify them, and it gives writers more stylistic options in constructing sentences. 从句的可移动性是一个有用的特征。它帮助我们识别从句，并为写作者在构句时提供更多的风格选择。

In some cases, it’s also possible to move the subordinate clause to the middle of the other clause, like this: 在某些情况下，也可以把从句移到另一个从句的中间，像这样：

Fred and George, because they are idiots, are no longer welcome here. 弗雷德和乔治，因为他们是白痴，在这里不再受欢迎。

Notice that in these cases, the subordinate clause is typically enclosed by a pair of commas. This placement of the subordinate clause, because it is unusual, is emphatic, so use it carefully. 注意，在这种情况下，从句通常被一对逗号括起来。这种从句的位置因为不常见，所以是强调性的，因此要小心使用。

Some subordinating conjunctions are more than one word: *as * if, as though, so that. 有些从属连词不止一个词：as if（好像）、as though（仿佛）、so that（以便）。

You should act as if you know what you’re doing. You should speak as though you know what you’re talking about. He took the job so that he could include it on his résumé. 你应该表现得好像你知道自己在做什么。你应该说话仿佛你知道自己在说什么。他接受这份工作以便能把它写进简历。

Though these clauses modify the verb, they are not moveable. 虽然这些从句修饰动词，但它们不可移动。

Some grammars include *even though among the subordinate conjunctions, as in We’re mentioning this even though you’ve * probably had enough conjunctions. An even though clause is generally moveable. 有些语法书把 even though（即使）也列入从属连词，例如我们在提这个，即使你可能已经受够连词了。even though 从句通常是可移动的。

THAT DARNED THAT

那该死的 that

One of the most troublesome subordinating conjunctions in the list above is that. It’s not complicated, but *that *is used in many different ways, not just as a conjunction. We’ll look at those uses in future chapters. 上面列表中最棘手的从属连词之一是 that。它并不复杂，但 that 有许多不同的用法，不仅仅是作为连词。我们将在后面的章节中考察这些用法。

For now, consider these subordinate that clauses, and notice that they are all adverbial, but not moveable. 目前，请考虑这些 that 从句，并注意它们都是状语性的，但不可移动。

I am confident that I will win. I am happy that you can be with us. We were sad that you lost. 我有信心我会赢。我很高兴你能和我们在一起。我们很难过你输了。

These clauses are adverbial but not because they modify the verb. Instead, they modify the adjectives (confident, happy, sad) in each sentence. 这些从句是状语性的，但不是因为它们修饰动词。相反，它们修饰每个句子中的形容词（confident、happy、sad）。

MORE CORRELATIVES

DISTINGUISHING CONJUNCTIONS FROM

PREPOSITIONS

区分连词与

介词

A few conjunctions are identical to prepositions. The only way to distinguish these prepositions from the identical conjunctions is the context: If the word in question is followed by a clause, it’s a conjunction. If the word in question is followed by a noun phrase or a pronoun, it’s a preposition. 有少数连词与介词完全相同。区分这些介词与相同形式的连词的唯一方法是看语境：如果所讨论的词后面跟的是一个从句，它就是连词；如果所讨论的词后面跟的是名词短语或代词，它就是介词。

Prepositions that resemble coordinating conjunctions are but * (meaning except*)* and for: 与并列连词相似的介词是 but（意为除了*）和 for：

Preposition: No one can go but her. I brought the gift for this child. 介词：除了她没人能去。我给这个孩子带了礼物。

Conjunction: He left, but he came back. He left, for it was late. 连词：他离开了，但他回来了。他离开了，因为天晚了。

Some prepositions also resemble subordinating conjunctions, like *before, after, until, since, *and as: 有些介词也类似于从属连词，如 before、after、until、since 和 as：

Preposition: Come back before [or after] sunset. Don’t come back until nine. He hasn’t come back since nine. He is known as Jim. 介词：在日落[或日落之后]之前回来。九点之前别回来。九点之后他还没回来。他以吉姆之名为人所知。

Conjunction: Come back before [or after] Jim returns. He does that until he falls down. He hasn’t come back since he graduated. He juggles as he rides a unicycle. 连词：在吉姆回来[或之后]之前回来。他一直那样做直到他倒下。自从他毕业之后他还没回来。他一边骑独轮车一边抛接球。

In every case, a noun follows the preposition and a clause follows the conjunction. 在任何情况下，介词后面跟名词，连词后面跟从句。

TWO KINDS OF CLAUSES

两类从句

The conjunctions we’ve been examining require us to work with two different kinds of clauses, and now we need to make the distinction clear: 我们一直在考察的连词要求我们使用两类不同的从句，现在我们需要把区别说清楚：

An** independent clause** contains at least one subject and at least one predicate, and it contains no word that makes the clause dependent on another clause to be complete. That is, it contains no word like a subordinating conjunction. An independent clause is grammatically complete by itself, without the addition of other clauses, so it can stand by itself as a complete sentence. When you encounter the term main clause, that’s simply another term for an independent clause. 独立从句至少包含一个主语和至少一个谓语，并且它不含任何使该从句依赖另一个从句才能完整的词。也就是说，它不含像从属连词这样的词。独立从句在语法上自身是完整的，不需要添加其他从句，因此它可以作为一个完整的句子独立存在。当你遇到术语主句（main clause）时，那只是独立从句的另一种说法。

When we combine two or more independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, we’ve created a compound sentence. 当我们用并列连词把两个或多个独立从句组合起来时，我们就构成了一个复合句。

A** dependent clause** contains at least one subject and at least one predicate, and it is not grammatically complete by itself. When a dependent clause appears in a sentence, it functions as part of an independent clause. 从属从句至少包含一个主语和至少一个谓语，并且它在语法上自身不完整。当从属从句出现在句子中时，它作为独立从句的一部分发挥作用。

According to these definitions, this is an independent clause: 根据这些定义，下面是一个独立从句：

We went to the museum. 我们去了博物馆。

But if we add a subordinating conjunction to it, it’s a dependent clause that needs to be connected to another clause: 但如果我们给它加上一个从属连词，它就成了一个需要与另一个从句连接的从属从句：

After we went to the museum . . . 在我们去了博物馆之后……

One kind of dependent clause is a** subordinate clause. It contains at least one subject and one predicate and it’s connected to an independent clause by a subordinating conjunction. As you know by now, the example clause above (After we went to the museum . . .) is a subordinate clause. 从属从句的一种是从句**（subordinate clause）。它至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，并且通过从属连词与独立从句连接。正如你现在所知道的，上面的例句（After we went to the museum . . .）就是一个从句。

Notice the difference between dependent clauses and subordinate clauses: Subordinate clauses are one subcategory of dependent clauses. This is a distinction that some grammar books, language textbooks, and dictionaries don’t make. 注意从属从句与从句之间的区别：从句是从属从句的一个子类。这是一些语法书、语言教材和词典没有做出的区分。

We’ll learn about other kinds of dependent clauses in the next few chapters. 在接下来的几章中，我们将学习其他类型的从属从句。

ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES

省略从句

In all kinds of ways, English sentences can contain elliptical ** clauses, sentences that often leave out words that are implied in context, as in [You must] Get out! Questions are also sometimes elliptical: Why me? (That is, *Why *[do these things happen to] me?) Elliptical structures help writers write concisely: *You are * more ambitious than I [am]. 英语句子可以通过各种方式包含省略从句**——这些句子常常省略掉在语境中隐含的词，如[You must] Get out!（滚出去！）。疑问句有时也是省略的：Why me?（为什么是我？）（也就是说，*Why [do these things happen to] me?，为什么这种事发生在我身上？）省略结构帮助写作者简洁地写作：You are more ambitious than I [am].（你比我更有野心。）

In elliptical clauses, we simply omit certain words that we need grammatically because they are—in that particular context— clearly implied. The missing words are often said to be understood; that is, the reader understands that certain words have been omitted for brevity. 在省略从句中，我们只是省略某些语法上需要的词，因为——在那个特定语境中——它们被明确暗示了。缺失的词常被说成是可理解的（understood）；也就是说，读者明白为了简洁而省略了某些词。

When we’re analyzing an elliptical clause, we insert the missing words because they’re necessary for the grammatical 当我们分析省略从句时，我们要插入缺失的词，因为它们对句子的语法

completeness of the sentence, though the meaning of the sentence is clear without them. 完整性是必要的，尽管没有它们句子的意思也清楚。

Here are some examples, all well-known proverbs: 下面是一些例子，都是著名的谚语：

When in doubt, punt. (John Heismann) When in doubt, don’t. (Benjamin Franklin) When in doubt, tell the truth. (Mark Twain) 如有疑问，踢悬空球。（John Heismann）如有疑问，别做。（本杰明·富兰克林）如有疑问，说真话。（马克·吐温）

If we rewrote these by making the implicit words explicit, they might read like this: 如果我们把这些隐含的词明确写出来，它们可能会是这样：

When [you are] in doubt, [you should] punt. When [you are] in doubt, [you] don’t [do what you were considering]. When [you are] in doubt, [you should] tell the truth. 当[你]有疑问[时]，[你应当]踢悬空球。当[你]有疑问[时]，[你]别[做你正在考虑的事]。当[你]有疑问[时]，[你应当]说真话。

Elliptical clauses are not fragment sentences, though they are often missing subjects, or part of their predicates: 省略从句不是碎片句，尽管它们常常缺失主语，或缺失部分谓语：

We are going, [whether you] like it or not. Whatever the situation [may be], he is uncooperative. If [it is] necessary, we will speak to him. [Money is] here today, [and] gone tomorrow. 我们要走了，[无论你]喜不喜欢。无论情况[可能]怎样，他都不合作。如果[这]有必要，我们会和他谈谈。[钱]今天在此，[而]明天就走了。

In the following examples, the subject in the subordinate clauses is missing, but it is similar or identical to the subject in the independent clauses: 在下面的例子中，从句中的主语缺失，但它与独立从句中的主语相似或相同：

While [we were] looking for your book, we found your lost keys. When [you are] traveling, you must keep your belongings secure. She likes him better than [she likes] me. 当[我们]寻找你的书时，我们找到了你丢失的钥匙。当[你]旅行时，你必须保管好你的财物。她比[她喜欢]我更喜欢他。

The correlative subordinating conjunction as . . . as can create similar elliptical structures: 关联从属连词 as . . . as 可以构成类似的省略结构：

She likes him as much as [she likes] me. He dances as well as she [dances]. 她喜欢他[的程度]和[她喜欢]我一样多。他跳舞跳得和她[跳舞]一样好。

And now [we’ll have] one more [elliptical sentence] for the road, from J. K. Rowling: 现在[我们再来]一句[省略句]作为临别赠言，来自 J. K. 罗琳：

When in doubt, go to the library. 如有疑问，去图书馆。

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者的建议

1. Variations on compound structures.

1. 复合结构的变体。

Sometimes writers choose to omit the conjunction (usually and) from compound structures. Carefully used, this unusual practice can make the compound structures more emphatic. Consider these series of compounds: 有时写作者会选择从复合结构中省略连词（通常是 and）。如果使用得当，这种不寻常的做法可以使复合结构更有强调意味。请看这些复合系列：

This project will require hard work, unwavering attention, total dedication. 这个项目将需要艰苦的工作、坚定的专注、全部的奉献。

“. . . government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” “……民有、民治、民享的政府，不会从地球上消亡。”

Be warned: If you overuse this variation, it ceases to be effective and, instead, becomes distracting or even pointless. 警告：如果你过度使用这种变体，它会失去效果，反而变得分散注意力甚至毫无意义。

Another variation is to use the conjunction and to join each part of a compound structure with the next part, to emphasize that all the parts are of equal importance: 另一种变体是用连词 and 把复合结构的每一部分与下一部分连接起来，以强调所有部分同等重要：

This project will require hard work and unwavering attention and total dedication. 这个项目将需要艰苦的工作和坚定的专注和全部的奉献。

Again, don’t overuse this pattern. 同样，不要过度使用这种句式。

Sometimes, when we have several compound sentences, we can improve sentence variety by omitting the conjunction in a two-clause sentence and replacing it with a semicolon: 有时，当我们有几个复合句时，可以通过在双从句句中省略连词并用分号代替来改善句子的多样性：

Luis excels at school, for he devotes many hours every week to studying. Luis excels at school**;** he devotes many hours every week to studying. 路易斯在学校表现出色，因为他每周投入很多小时学习。路易斯在学校表现出色**；**他每周投入很多小时学习。

You’ve probably noticed in your reading that just one coordi- nating conjunction can create a compound sentence of three, four, or more independent clauses: 你可能在阅读中注意到，仅仅一个并列连词就可以构成含有三个、四个或更多独立从句的复合句：

A single coordinating conjunction can unite a sentence of two clauses, it can create a sentence of three or four clauses, and in rare cases it is used in a sentence of five clauses or more. 一个并列连词可以连接两个从句的句子，它可以构成三个或四个从句的句子，而且在极少数情况下，它用于五个或更多从句的句子。

2. Compound subjects and verb agreement.

2. 复合主语与动词一致。

Compound subjects take singular or plural verbs, depending on the conjunction or, in some cases, the right-most subject. Look at these three examples: 复合主语使用单数或复数动词，取决于连词，或者在某些情况下，取决于最右边的主语。请看这三个例子：

Bob and Ray are here. Either Bob or Ray is your assistant. Either Bob or the twins are your assistants. 鲍勃和雷在这里。要么鲍勃要么雷是你的助手。要么鲍勃要么那对双胞胎是你的助手。

The and in the first example means that the subject, Bob and Ray, is plural, so you need a plural verb: are. 第一个例子中的 and 意味着主语 Bob and Ray 是复数，所以你需要复数动词：are。

The or in the second example means that the subject, *Bob or * Ray, is singular—either Bob or Ray—so you need the singular verb: is. 第二个例子中的 or 意味着主语 Bob or Ray 是单数——either Bob or Ray——所以你需要单数动词：is。

In the third example, the plural subject, twins, is the subject closest to the verb. In this case, you need the plural verb, are. If the 在第三个例子中，复数主语 twins 是离动词最近的主语。在这种情况下，你需要复数动词 are。如果

compound subject were reversed—either the twins or Bob—the verb would be singular: is. 复合主语被倒过来——either the twins or Bob——动词就会是单数：is。

So the third example is grammatically correct, but it sounds awkward to many readers. We can usually improve a sentence like this by rewriting it: 所以第三个例子在语法上是正确的，但对许多读者来说听起来很别扭。我们通常可以通过改写来改善这样的句子：

BETTER: Either Bob or the twins will assist you. 更好：要么鲍勃要么双胞胎会帮助你。

3. So that.

3. So that（以便）。

In casual conversation and writing, we often use so by itself as an intensifier before an adjective or adverb to mean very or really: 在随意的对话和写作中，我们经常单独使用 so 作为形容词或副词前的强调词，意为非常或真的：

He was so angry. She ran so fast. 他非常生气。她跑得飞快。

In formal writing and speaking, this is often regarded as a mistake, because so, used this way, requires a that clause to finish the idea: 在正式的写作和说话中，这常被视为错误，因为这样使用的 so 需要一个 that 从句来完成意思：

He was so angry that he couldn’t speak. She ran so fast that she outdistanced all the other runners. 他是如此生气，以至于说不出话来。她跑得如此之快，以至于把其他所有跑者都甩在后面。

The that clause enables us to clarify how angry he was, or how fast she was. When we leave it out, we’ve failed to finish the idea. that 从句使我们能够澄清他有多生气，或她有多快。当我们省略它时，我们就没能完成这个意思。

Write so carefully that no one can accuse you of carelessness— unless you’re deliberately seeking a casual, more conversational style. 把 so 写得小心些，以至于没有人能指责你粗心——除非你刻意追求一种随意、更口语化的风格。

4. Conjunctive adverbs.

4. 连接副词。

We often use the following phrases in our reading, writing, and speaking: 我们在阅读、写作和说话中经常使用以下短语：

therefore however moreover nevertheless thus hence indeed in fact likewise in contrast

These phrases and many like them (e.g., *after all, as a result, * consequently, furthermore, instead, meanwhile, on the contrary, still, then) indicate some connection between the clauses they appear in and previous clauses: 这些短语以及许多类似的短语（如 after all、as a result、consequently、furthermore、instead、meanwhile、on the contrary、still、then）表明它们所在的从句与前面的从句之间有某种联系：

She has been late three times this week; therefore**,** I don’t consider her reliable. He has been late three times this week; however, he is usually reliable. 她这周迟到三次；因此**，**我认为她不可靠。他这周迟到三次；然而，他通常是可靠的。

These are conjunctive adverbs: They are adverbs that vaguely resemble conjunctions, because they indicate a relationship between the ideas of two clauses. But they are not conjunctions. They can’t—by themselves—join the two clauses into a compound or complex sentence. That is, the connection indicated by conjunctive adverbs is one of ideas, not grammatical structure. 这些是连接副词：它们是副词，模糊地类似于连词，因为它们表明两个从句之间的思想关系。但它们不是连词。它们单靠自己不能把两个从句连接成一个复合句或复杂句。也就是说，连接副词所表明的联系是思想上的，而非语法结构上的。

They are sometimes called transitional adverbs, and we use them to build paragraph coherence by signaling the connections among the sentences. 它们有时被称为过渡副词，我们用它们通过标示句子之间的联系来构建段落连贯性。

This affects punctuation. Notice the use of semi-colons—not commas—above. In each example, we could use periods instead of semi-colons and make two separate sentences. In that case, the second sentence in each example could still contain the conjunctive adverbs. 这影响标点。注意上面使用的是分号——而不是逗号。在每个例子中，我们都可以用句号代替分号，构成两个独立的句子。在那种情况下，每个例子中的第二个句子仍然可以包含连接副词。

We can tell that these words are adverbs and not conjunctions because they are moveable in many contexts: 我们可以判断这些词是副词而不是连词，因为它们在许多语境中是可以移动的：

He has been late three times this week; however, he is usually reliable. 他这周迟到三次；然而，他通常是可靠的。

He has been late three times this week; he is, however, usually reliable. 他这周迟到三次；他，然而，通常是可靠的。

We can’t move a true conjunction around in its clause as we can move these conjunctive adverbs. If however were a true subordinating conjunction, it would have to remain at the beginning of the clause it introduces. 我们不能像移动这些连接副词那样在从句中移动真正的连词。如果 however 是一个真正的从属连词，它就不得不留在它所引导的从句的开头。

Notice that in the second example above, the placement of however after *is *creates a pause that gives greater emphasis to the next words, usually reliable. 注意，在上面第二个例子中，however 放在 is 之后产生了一个停顿，使接下来的词 usually reliable 更受强调。

In other words, conjunctive adverbs have at least two stylistic uses: to indicate transition from one idea to the next, and (if carefully used) to emphasis words that follow the adverbs. 换句话说，连接副词至少有两种风格用途：标示从一个思想到下一个的过渡，以及（如果使用得当）强调副词后面的词。

However is sometimes used as an adverb in ways that are not conjunctive, such as an adverb modifying an adjective or adverb. In each of the cases below, the adjective or adverb in bold modifies a noun or verb before it (fine, children, or to run): However 有时用作非连接性的副词，例如修饰形容词或副词的副词。在下面每种情况下，粗体的形容词或副词修饰它前面的名词或动词（fine、children 或 to run）：

You must pay the fine, however unreasonable. School children, however young, can learn responsibility. She decided to run in the race, however slowly. 你必须交罚款，无论罚款多么不合理。学童，无论多年轻，也能学会责任。她决定参加比赛，无论跑得多慢。

We can also use however as a subordinating conjunction, which is why it’s in the list of conjunctions in this chapter: 我们也可以把 however 用作从属连词，这就是为什么它在本章的连词列表中：

We can rearrange this office however we wish. Apparently you can use however however you like. 我们可以按我们的意愿重新布置这个办公室。显然你可以随心所欲地使用 however。

These clauses are not moveable. 这些从句不可移动。

5. Compounds and concise writing.

5. 复合结构与简洁写作。

Compound structures help us achieve brevity in our writing. For example, with compounding, we can make one adjective modify several nouns: 复合结构帮助我们在写作中实现简洁。例如，通过复合，我们可以让一个形容词修饰多个名词：

In the trunk in the attic, we discovered old clothes, books, and photographs. 在阁楼的箱子里，我们发现了旧衣服、书籍和照片。

Or we can use one preposition to apply to several objects, or one adverb to apply to several verbs: 或者我们可以让一个介词适用于多个宾语，或一个副词适用于多个动词：

Mr. Benny is traveling to Anaheim, Azusa, and Cucamonga. We all eagerly dressed, packed, and departed. 本尼先生正在前往阿纳海姆、阿苏萨和库卡蒙加。我们都急切地穿衣、打包并出发。

6. Subtract the plus.

6. 去掉 plus（加）。

In your careful writing, don’t use plus as a replacement for and unless your context is mathematical, or metaphorically mathematical: 在你严谨的写作中，不要把 plus 用作 and 的替代品，除非你的语境是数学的，或比喻意义上的数学：

Hard work plus determination equal success. 努力工作加决心等于成功。

EXERCISES

练习题

9a. Try to write, from memory, the seven coordinating conjunc- tions. (A hint: Remember FANBOYS.) Check your answers with the list in this chapter. 9a. 试着凭记忆写出七个并列连词。（提示：记住 FANBOYS。）用本章的列表核对你的答案。

9b. Try to write, from memory, the four correlative coordinating conjunctions. Check your answers with the list in this chapter. 9b. 试着凭记忆写出四个关联并列连词。用本章的列表核对你的答案。

9c. Try to write, from memory, ten of the subordinating conjunc- tions, and consult the chapter to check your answers. 9c. 试着凭记忆写出十个从属连词，并参考本章核对你的答案。

9d. In the following sentences, underline and classify the conjunc- tions as coordinating (C) or subordinating (S) and put brackets around any prepositions. Refer to the lists in this chapter and the previous chapter if you need to. Classify correlative conjunctions as coordinating. 9d. 在下面的句子中，给连词加下划线并归类为并列连词（C）或从属连词（S），并用方括号把任何介词括起来。如果需要，请参考本章和前一章的列表。把关联连词归类为并列连词。

Here’s an example: 下面是一个例子：

C C [In] the following sentences, underline and classify the conjunctions [在]下面的句子中，给连词加下划线并分类 *** *** *** *** *** C *** *** *** *** C*** *** *** *** *** *** C *** *** *** *** C*** [as] coordinating or subordinating and put brackets [around] any [作为]并列或从属连词，并把方括号[加在]任何 prepositions. 介词周围。

The film was not only boring, but also offensive, so we asked for a refund and went home.
这部电影不仅无聊，而且冒犯人，所以我们要求退款并回家了。
In the morning and again in the evening, Ruthie practices her violin until her mother can’t stand it anymore.
早晨和傍晚，露西练习她的小提琴，直到她母亲再也无法忍受。
We went to the diner for lunch, for we were expected back soon.
我们去小餐馆吃午饭，因为我们很快就要被盼回去了。
Because we are tired, we’ll take a short break before we continue studying.
因为我们累了，我们会在继续学习之前短暂休息一下。
Fred and George have been gone since Friday night, since they took a “short break” from studying.
弗雷德和乔治自从周五晚上就走了，因为他们从学习中抽了个"短假"。
After I finish this project, we can meet after work and discuss the project.
在我完成这个项目之后，我们可以下班后见面并讨论这个项目。
Fred and George are neither punctual nor organized, yet they somehow do their work well.
弗雷德和乔治既不守时也无条理，然而他们 somehow 把工作做得很好。
He was so confident that he underestimated his opponent.
他如此自信，以至于低估了对手。
The room looked as if it had not been occupied in some time, but it had been occupied for days or weeks.
房间看起来好像有一段时间没人住了，但它已经被占用好几天或几周了。
The longer he waited, the more impatient he became.
他等得越久，就变得越不耐烦。

**9e. **In the following sentences, identify and label compound subjects, compound verbs, compound predicates, and other compound structures, but not clauses. There are no compound sentences. Not every sentence contains a compound. 9e. 在下面的句子中，识别并标注复合主语、复合动词、复合谓语和其他复合结构，但不包括从句。这里没有复合句。并非每个句子都包含复合结构。

Anne always fastens her seatbelt and locks her doors before she drives.
安妮在开车前总是系好安全带并锁好车门。
Anne and James are driving to Nashville and Chattanooga.
安妮和詹姆斯正开车去纳什维尔和查塔努加。
In Nashville, Anne shopped and visited her family.
在纳什维尔，安妮购物并探望了家人。
She and I always enjoy Nashville, but seldom go there.
她和我总是喜欢纳什维尔，但很少去那里。
The next day we will drive from Tennessee to Illinois.
第二天我们将从田纳西开车去伊利诺伊。
In Illinois, we will visit the Lincoln Museum and the Lincoln Library.
在伊利诺伊，我们将参观林肯博物馆和林肯图书馆。
We will stop in Wisconsin or Minnesota for the night.
我们将在威斯康星或明尼苏达停留过夜。
In Minnesota we will ski and visit family.
在明尼苏达我们将滑雪并探望家人。
Anne and her sister Alice love skiing.
安妮和她的姐姐爱丽丝热爱滑雪。
In cold weather, James stays indoors and reads.
在寒冷的天气里，詹姆斯待在室内并阅读。