造句：用从句构建句子

Previously, we’ve learned about conjunctions that join one clause to another. Now we can finally define some of the most important terms in grammar regarding clauses and sentences, and the subject is important enough that it merits a bit of repetition. 之前，我们已经学习了把一个从句与另一个从句连接起来的连词。现在，我们终于可以定义语法中关于从句和句子的一些最重要术语了，而且这个主题足够重要，值得稍作重复。

As we’ve learned before, a clause is a unit of language that contains one subject* and one predicate. That definition overlaps with our working definition of a sentence because every sentence contains at least one clause. 正如我们之前所学，从句是包含一个主语和*一个谓语的语言单位。这个定义与我们关于句子的工作定义重叠，因为每个句子都至少包含一个从句。

We’ve said that are two general kinds of clauses in English: 我们说过英语中有两类一般性的从句：

An** independent clause** contains one subject and one predicate, and it contains no word that makes the clause dependent on another clause to be complete. That is, it contains no word like a subordinating conjunction or others that we will learn about. An independent clause is grammatically complete by itself, so it can stand by itself as a complete sentence. 独立从句包含一个主语和一个谓语，并且它不含任何使该从句依赖另一个从句才能完整的词。也就是说，它不含像从属连词这样的词，也不含我们将要学习的其他词。独立从句在语法上自身是完整的，因此它可以作为一个完整的句子独立存在。

A** dependent clause** contains one subject and one predicate, and it is not grammatically complete by itself. It functions as part of an independent clause. Dependent clauses include the subordinate clause (which we create with a subordinating conjunction), and other kinds of dependent clauses that we’ll learn about soon. 从属从句包含一个主语和一个谓语，并且它在语法上自身不完整。它作为独立从句的一部分发挥作用。从属从句包括从句（我们用从属连词构成的那一种），以及我们很快就会学到的其他类型的从属从句。

According to these definitions, this is an independent clause: 根据这些定义，下面是一个独立从句：

We fixed dinner for our parents last night. 昨晚我们给父母做了晚饭。

But if we add a subordinating conjunction to it, it becomes a de- pendent clause that needs to be connected to an independent clause: 但如果我们给它加上一个从属连词，它就变成了一个需要与独立从句连接的从属从句：

Before we fixed dinner for our parents last night . . . 昨晚我们给父母做晚饭之前……

A subordinate clause is one kind of dependent clause. A subordinate clause contains one subject and one predicate, and it* * must be connected to an independent clause by a subordinating conjunction. The clause above (Before we fixed dinner . . .) is a subordinate clause. 从句是从属从句的一种。从句包含一个主语和一个谓语，并且它必须通过从属连词与独立从句连接。上面的从句（Before we fixed dinner . . .）就是一个从句。

Again,** notice the difference between dependent clauses and subordinate clauses: A subordinate clause is one kind of dependent clause. (We’ll study two other kinds of dependent clauses in later chapters: the relative clause and the nominal clause.) 再次注意从属从句与从句之间的区别：从句是从属从句的一种。（我们将在后面的章节中学习另外两种从属从句：关系从句和名词性从句**。）

Finally, here is a new definition of a** sentence, that important unit of language that we’ve talked about all along: 最后，这里给出句子**的一个新定义，**这个我们一直在讨论的重要语言单位：

A sentence is a unit of language that contains at least one independent clause. It may also contain one or more dependent clauses. 句子是至少包含一个独立从句的语言单位。它也可以包含一个或多个从属从句。

Like most definitions of a sentence, this one would not satisfy most linguists (a notoriously argumentative bunch), but it will do for our purposes. 像大多数句子的定义一样，这个定义不会让大多数语言学家满意（他们是一群出了名爱争论的人），但对我们的目的来说已经够用了。

CLASSIFYING BY STRUCTURE

按结构分类

With these definitions, we go on to the well-known, four-part classification of sentences, based on their structures: 有了这些定义，我们继续基于句子结构进行著名的四部分分类：

• Simple sentences • 简单句 • Compound sentences • 复合句 • Complex sentences • 复杂句 • Compound-Complex sentences • 复合-复杂句

You’ve probably encountered them before: 你可能以前见过它们：

Simple Sentence: A simple sentence contains only one in- dependent clause: 简单句： 简单句只包含一个独立从句：

I went to the garage. 我去了车库。

A simple sentence can contain a compound subject, a compound predicate, or other compound structures. The sentence below contains one compound subject and one compound predicate, so it’s still a simple sentence: 简单句可以包含复合主语、复合谓语或其他复合结构。下面的句子包含一个复合主语和一个复合谓语，所以它仍然是一个简单句：

Alphonse and I went to the garage, found his car, and drove it home. 阿方斯和我去了车库，找到他的车，并把它开回家。

The following sentence contains a compound subject, a com- pound verb, and a compound predicate: 下面的句子包含复合主语、复合动词和复合谓语：

Jim and Louise planned and prepared the meal and cleared up afterward. 吉姆和路易斯计划、并准备了饭菜并事后收拾干净。

It’s still just one clause, so it’s a simple sentence. 它仍然只是一个从句，所以它是一个简单句。

Compound Sentence: A compound sentence contains at least two clauses: two or more independent clauses joined by one or more coordinating conjunctions. There are no dependent clauses in a compound sentence: 复合句： 复合句至少包含两个从句：两个或多个由一或多个并列连词连接的独立从句。复合句中没有从属从句：

I went to the garage, and I found my bike. 我去了车库，并且我找到了我的自行车。

I found my bike, **but **the tires were flat. 我找到了我的自行车，但是轮胎瘪了。

Complex Sentence: A complex sentence contains at least two clauses: only one independent clause and one or more de- pendent clauses. In the examples in this chapter, the dependent clauses will be joined to the independent clauses by one or more subordinating conjunctions (shown in bold): 复杂句： 复杂句至少包含两个从句：只有一个独立从句和一个或多个从属从句。在本章的例子中，从属从句将通过一或多个从属连词（以粗体显示）与独立从句连接：

I went to the garage because I needed my bike. 我去了车库因为我需要我的自行车。

Complex sentences can also contain relative clauses or nominal clauses, as we will soon see. 复杂句也可以包含关系从句或名词性从句，我们很快就会看到。

Compound-Complex Sentence: A compound-complex sentence contains at least three clauses. It contains two or more independent clauses joined by one or more coordinating con- junctions, and it also contains one or more dependent clauses. In the example below, the dependent clause is a subordinate clause, joined by a subordinating conjunction: 复合-复杂句： 复合-复杂句至少包含三个从句。它包含两个或多个由一或多个并列连词连接的独立从句，并且还包含一个或多个从属从句。在下面的例子中，从属从句是一个从句，由从属连词连接：

I went to the garage because I needed my bike, and I found it. 我去了车库因为我需要我的自行车，并且我找到了它。

As we’ll soon see, compound-complex sentences can also contain relative clauses or nominal clauses. 正如我们很快会看到的，复合-复杂句也可以包含关系从句或名词性从句。

Fragments: There’s a fifth kind of sentence that’s not really a sentence at all. It’s a fragment sentence, a structurally incom- plete sentence, and there are many ways to write them. Here’s one way: 碎片句： 还有第五种"句子"，它其实根本不是句子。它是一个碎片句，结构上不完整的句子，而且有很多种写法。这里是一种：

I went to the garage and I found my bike. Because I needed it. 我去了车库并且我找到了我的自行车。因为我需要它。

The second sentence is a fragment; it’s simply a subordinate clause that is punctuated like a sentence. We use such fragments all the time in conversation: 第二个句子是一个碎片；它只是一个被当作句子标点的从句。我们在对话中一直使用这样的碎片：

Why were you looking for your bike? Because I needed it. 你为什么在找你的自行车？因为我需要它。

Usually no one objects, or even notices. In careful writing, how- ever, we should avoid fragments unless we’re deliberately using them for emphasis. Even then, we should use them with restraint. 通常没有人反对，甚至没有人注意到。然而，在严谨的写作中，我们应该避免碎片句，除非我们刻意用它们来强调。即便如此，我们也应该克制使用。

What if we combine two fragments? Do two fragments make a whole? The following consists of two subordinate clauses, punctuated like a complete sentence: 如果我们把两个碎片合并会怎样？两个碎片能组成一个整体吗？下面这个由两个从句组成，被标点成了一个完整的句子：

When he finally arrives, if the plane is on time. 当他最终到达时，如果飞机准时的话。

Combining two (or more) dependent clauses still makes a fragment sentence, because a sentence has to have at least one independent clause. This kind of fragment is never acceptable, unless you’re Gertrude Stein, and you probably aren’t. (If you are, get in touch with us immediately.) 合并两个（或更多）从属从句仍然构成一个碎片句，因为句子必须至少有一个独立从句。这种碎片永远不可接受，除非你是格特鲁德·斯坦，而你很可能不是。（如果你是，请立即与我们联系。）

CLASSIFYING BY PURPOSE

按用途分类

There is another way to classify sentences: according to their purposes. Even in these classifications, sentence structure and punctuation are important. 还有另一种给句子分类的方法：根据它们的用途。即使在这些分类中，句子结构和标点也很重要。

As we’ve seen, declarative sentences make a statement. They usually have the subject + predicate structure we’ve exam- ined (subject first, predicate second), and they usually end with a period: 正如我们所见，陈述句是用来陈述的。它们通常具有我们考察过的主语 + 谓语结构（主语在前，谓语在后），并且通常以句号结尾：

I am in trouble. 我有麻烦了。

Interrogative sentences ask a question. They may begin with a question word (Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?) or with a verb. They typically end with a question mark: 疑问句用来提问。它们可以以疑问词（Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?）或动词开头。它们通常以问号结尾：

Why do these things always happen to me? 为什么这种事总是发生在我身上？

How can these things keep happening? Do things like this ever happen to you? 这种事怎么可能不断发生？这种事曾经发生在你身上吗？

As the third example above shows, many questions (those that can be answered by yes or* no*) can be formed from declarative sentences by altering the placement of a verb. An auxiliary verb (like do) is placed before the subject: 正如上面的第三个例子所示，许多疑问句（那些可以用是或否回答的）可以通过改变动词的位置从陈述句构成。助动词（如 do）被放在主语之前：

You know what I’m talking about. Do you know what I’m talking about? 你知道我在说什么。你知道我在说什么吗？

Sometimes, especially in conversation and fictional dialogue, interrogatives are just a word or two that make sense in context (we hope): 有时，特别是在对话和虚构的对话中，疑问句只是上下文中能理解的一两个词（我们希望如此）：

What? Why? Who, me? 什么？为什么？谁，我？

Interrogatives can also be statements that end in tag questions: 疑问句也可以是结尾带附加疑问句的陈述：

You did forget your textbooks, didn’t you? I won’t need them, will I? 你确实忘了你的课本，不是吗？我将不需要它们，是吗？

These two examples above are not run-on sentences or comma splices. They are correct, completely acceptable sentences, and they’re a bit more complicated than they might look. 上面这两个例子不是粘连句，也不是逗号误接句。它们是正确的、完全可接受的句子，而且比看起来要复杂一些。

As you see in the two examples, a tag question is added to the end of a declarative sentence with a comma, and it repeats the auxiliary verb and the subject of the declarative. If the declarative is positive (You did forget your textbooks), the tag question is negative (didn’t you?). If the declarative is negative (*I won’t need * them), the tag is positive (will I?). 正如你在两个例子中所看到的，附加疑问句是用逗号加在陈述句末尾的，它重复陈述句的助动词和主语。如果陈述句是肯定的（You did forget your textbooks），附加疑问句是否定的（didn’t you?）。如果陈述句是否定的（I won’t need them），附加疑问句是肯定的（will I?）。

In other words, negative tag questions anticipate positive answers: 换句话说，否定附加疑问句预期肯定回答：

You forgot your textbooks, didn’t you? Oh—yes, I did. 你忘了你的课本，不是吗？哦——是的，我忘了。

And positive tag questions anticipate negative answers: 而肯定附加疑问句预期否定回答：

I won’t need them, will I? No, you won’t. 我将不需要它们，是吗？不，你不需要。

But we don’t always get the answer we anticipate, do we? (Or, as the great Fats Waller often said: “One never knows, do one?”) 但我们并不总是得到预期的答案，不是吗？（或者，正如伟大的法茨·沃勒常说的：“谁也不知道，是吗？"）

An** imperative sentence** is a command. It may end with a period or an exclamation mark, and it may be missing the subject: 祈使句是一个命令。它可以用句号或感叹号结尾，并且可能缺少主语：

Get out of here! Go! Scram! Get lost! 滚出去！走！快滚！走开！

In an imperative sentence, the missing subject is often an implied second-person pronoun (you) perhaps with an implied auxiliary verb: 在祈使句中，缺失的主语通常是一个隐含的第二人称代词（you），可能还带有隐含的助动词：

[You must] Get out of here! [You must] Stop that! [你必须]滚出去！[你必须]停下！

Commands can be phrased more politely, but they’re still imperatives: 命令可以用更礼貌的方式表达，但它们仍然是祈使句：

Please don’t do that. 请不要那样做。

Exclamatory sentences express strong emotion. They have no distinctive structure or end punctuation, and they’re often incomplete sentences or just a phrase: 感叹句表达强烈的情感。它们没有独特的结构或结尾标点，而且常常是不完整的句子或仅仅是一个短语：

No! Don’t! Oh, that’s just great What the heck? 不！别！哦，那真是太棒了 搞什么鬼？

The four classifications that we just examined illustrate how inadequate simple terms and concepts sometimes are in analyzing what language can do. In some cases, because language is capable of explicit and implicit meanings, sentences don’t clearly fit in any single category; they may have implicit meanings quite different from their explicit purpose. 我们刚才考察的四种分类说明了简单的术语和概念在分析语言能做什么时有时是多么不充分。在某些情况下，因为语言能够表达显性和隐性的意义，句子并不能清楚地归入任何单一类别；它们可能有与显性用途大不相同的隐性意义。

Suppose a teacher in a classroom says to a student, 假设课堂上的老师对学生说，

You look puzzled. 你看起来很困惑。

In that context, this declarative sentence may contain an implicit interrogative: Do you have a question? 在那个语境中，这个陈述句可能含有一个隐含的疑问句：你有问题吗？

Or suppose the teacher says to a student in the back row, 或者假设老师对后排的一个学生说，

I’m watching you. 我在看着你。

That could be an implicit imperative, meaning Stop what you’re * doing! Behave yourself! 那可能是一个隐含的祈使句，意思是停下你正在做的事！规矩点！*

The teacher might imply the same imperative idea with a ques- tion: Did you have something to say? 老师也可能用一个问题来暗示同样的祈使意思：你有什么要说的吗？

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者的建议

1. Beginning sentences with conjunctions.

1. 用连词开头写句子。

You may have learned in school that writers should not begin a sentence with the subordinating conjunction because, like this: 你可能在学校里学到过，写作者不应该用从属连词 because 开头写句子，像这样：

Because Linda was late for school, she left home hastily. 因为琳达上学迟到了，她匆忙离开了家。

In fact, that is a perfectly good complex sentence, and good writers do indeed begin sentences with because. But you shouldn’t do this: 事实上，这是一个非常好的复杂句，优秀的写作者确实用 because 开头写句子。但你不应该这样做：

WRONG: Because Linda was late for school. She left home hastily. 错误：因为琳达上学迟到了。她匆忙离开了家。

As we saw earlier, a subordinate clause has to be connected to an independent clause unless you’re deliberately writing a fragment. 正如我们之前所见，从句必须与一个独立从句连接，除非你刻意写一个碎片句。

You can also begin sentences with coordinating conjunctions, but don’t overdo it. We’ve done it twice in the last page or so: 你也可以用并列连词开头写句子，但不要过度。我们在最近一页左右已经这样做了两次：

But you shouldn’t do this. And, even then, we should use them with restraint. 但是你不应该这样做。而且，即便如此，我们也应该克制使用它们。

The initial conjunction connects the idea of the sentence to the preceding sentences—it’s one way to create paragraph ** coherence. It also contributes to a somewhat less formal tone, which is desirable in some contexts. 开头的连词把句子的意思与前面的句子连接起来——这是创造段落连贯性**的一种方式。它也有助于形成一种略不正式的语气，这在某些语境中是可取的。

A sentence that begins with a coordinating conjunction is not a fragment sentence. It is a stylistic variation that you should use with restraint. 以并列连词开头的句子不是碎片句。它是一种你应该克制使用的风格变体。

2. Commas in compound structures.

2. 复合结构中的逗号。

When a sentence contains a compound phrase of two parts, commas are usually not necessary: 当一个句子包含由两部分组成的复合短语时，逗号通常没有必要：

My brother and your sister are planning a party. 我哥哥和你姐姐正在计划一个聚会。

When there are three or more parts in the compound structure, we typically use only one conjunction to join them all, and commas separate the parts: 当复合结构中有三个或更多部分时，我们通常用仅一个连词把它们全部连接起来，并用逗号分隔各部分：

My brother**, your sister, and** their friends are planning a party. 我哥哥**， 你姐姐，以及**他们的朋友正在计划一个聚会。

As you may have noticed in the examples earlier, compound sentences use a comma to mark the end of every independent clause except the last: 正如你可能在前面的例子中注意到的，复合句用一个逗号来标示除最后一个以外的每个独立从句的结尾：

Now you’re behaving yourself**,** but you have to leave anyway. 现在你守规矩了**，****但是**你无论如何都得离开。

You’re behaving yourself now**,** yet you have to leave**,** and you can’t come back. 你现在守规矩了**，****然而你还是得离开，****而且**你不能回来。

When the two clauses are short and simple, we can omit the comma: 当两个从句简短而简单时，我们可以省略逗号：

I am angry and I am leaving. 我很生气，我要离开了。

When the clauses are long and complex, the commas separating the clauses become more important. They help the reader understand where one clause begins and another ends. 当从句长而复杂时，分隔从句的逗号就变得更加重要。它们帮助读者理解一个从句在哪里开始，另一个在哪里结束。

When a subordinate clause begins the sentence, the comma separates the subordinate clause from the independent clause, unless the subordinate clause is brief and the sentence is unam- biguous without the comma: 当从句位于句首时，逗号把从句与独立从句分隔开，除非从句简短且句子在没有逗号时也无歧义：

Because I could not stop for Death**,** I hid behind a tree. (Emily Dickinson, improved.) 因为我无法停下等死**，**我躲到了一棵树后。（艾米莉·狄金森，改进版。）

The sentences below challenge our comprehension (at least a little) because they each need a comma to mark the end of a subordinate clause. Read these sentences and decide where the commas should go: 下面的句子挑战我们的理解力（至少有一点），因为它们每个都需要一个逗号来标示从句的结尾。读这些句子并决定逗号应该放在哪里：

Because you’ve already eaten dinner at our house tonight will be postponed. 因为你已经在我们的房子吃过晚饭今晚将被推迟。

After you’ve eaten the dog should be fed right away. 在你吃过之后狗应该马上被喂。

Yes, we deliberately wrote these sentences to be difficult without the comma. But such sentences do occur in our everyday writing. Commas are important in these cases because they clarify the structure of the sentence for the reader. (If you haven’t yet worked it out, both of those last two examples need a comma after eaten.) 是的，我们故意写了这些没有逗号就很难懂的句子。但这种句子确实出现在我们的日常写作中。逗号在这些情况下很重要，因为它们为读者澄清了句子的结构。（如果你还没想出来，最后这两个例子都需要在 eaten 后面加一个逗号。）

EXERCISES

练习题

**10a. **Go back to the beginning pages of this chapter and reread the definitions of an independent clause, a dependent clause, and a sentence. Then try to write the three definitions from memory, and use the book to check your work. 10a. 回到本章开头的几页，重读独立从句、从属从句和句子的定义。然后试着凭记忆写出这三个定义，并用书来核对你的作业。

**10b. **Classify the following sentences according to their structures. Each sentence will be simple, compound, complex, or compound- complex. Refer to the definitions in this chapter when you need to. 10b. 根据结构对下面的句子进行分类。每个句子将是简单句、复合句、复杂句或复合-复杂句。需要时请参考本章的定义。

Here are a few points to help you: 这里有几个要点帮助你：

• Pay attention to punctuation, which often helps. • 注意标点，它常常有帮助。 • Watch for conjunctions of all kinds; don’t confuse preposi- tions with conjunctions. • 注意各类连词；不要把介词和连词混淆。 • Remember that a compound phrase of some sort (like a compound subject or compound direct object) may be in a sentence that does not itself have compound structure. • 记住，某种复合短语（如复合主语或复合直接宾语）可能出现在本身没有复合结构的句子中。

Finally, there is at least one fragment sentence here that can’t be classified any other way. Classify every incomplete sentence you find as a fragment. 最后，这里至少有一个碎片句，无法以其他方式分类。把你发现的每个不完整的句子都归类为碎片句。

  1. My family owned a cocker spaniel when I was young.

  2. 我小时候家里养过一只可卡犬。

  3. Before the meeting, we will set up the room, and you should prepare the refreshments.

  4. 会议前，我们会布置房间，而且你应该准备茶点。

  5. Before the meeting begins, we will set up the room, and you should prepare the refreshments.

  6. 会议开始前，我们会布置房间，而且你应该准备茶点。

  7. He has done well since graduation, and he credits his success to the university.

  8. 他毕业后表现很好，而且他把成功归功于这所大学。

  9. As if he is our supervisor.

  10. 好像他是我们的主管似的。

  11. Since graduation, when he began working here, while Arthur was the supervisor of both departments.

  12. 自从毕业、当他开始在这里工作、而亚瑟是两个部门的主管期间。

  13. Louise and Sharon went to the garage and found their car.

  14. 路易斯和沙伦去了车库并找到了他们的车。

  15. Either Arthur and Gwyn find a way to solve this problem themselves, or they must seek help.

  16. 要么亚瑟和格温自己找到解决这个问题的方法，要么他们必须寻求帮助。

  17. Both spring and fall are their favorite seasons for camping and fishing in the mountains.

  18. 春天和秋天都是他们去山里露营和钓鱼最喜欢的季节。

  19. We sat nervously as we waited for our interviews.

  20. 我们紧张地坐着，等待面试。

  21. During our interviews, the applicants occasionally answered poorly, but in general they did well.

  22. 在面试中，应聘者偶尔回答得不好，但总体上他们表现得很好。

  23. After they left the office, they returned, for Louise had for- gotten her portfolio.

  24. 他们离开办公室后，又回来了，因为路易斯忘了她的作品集。

10c. Return to the sentences in 10b, and identify the complete subjects and predicates in all the clauses of all the complete sentences. Put subjects in brackets and underline predicates. 10c. 回到 10b 中的句子，识别所有完整句子所有从句中的完整主语和谓语。把主语放在方括号里，谓语加下划线。

**10d. **Classify the following sentences according to their purposes: Each sentence will be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. (Don’t worry about possible implicit meanings.) Refer to the definitions in this chapter when you need to. 10d. 根据用途对下面的句子进行分类：每个句子将是陈述句、疑问句、祈使句或感叹句。（不必担心可能的隐性意义。）需要时请参考本章的定义。

  1. What a mess!

  2. 真是一团糟！

  3. What are you shouting about?

  4. 你在喊什么？

  5. I forgot my portfolio, and now the office is closed.

  6. 我忘了我的作品集，现在办公室关门了。

  7. Just relax and get it tomorrow.

  8. 放松点，明天去拿吧。

  9. Listen!

  10. 听！

  11. The boys’ choir is singing.

  12. 男童合唱团在唱歌。

  13. What music those children make!

  14. 那些孩子演奏的音乐多美啊！

  15. Didn’t Count Dracula say that once?

  16. 德古拉伯爵不是曾说过那句话吗？

  17. Are you comparing the boys’ choir to wolves?

  18. 你是在把男童合唱团和狼群比较吗？

  19. Stop twisting my words!

  20. 别歪曲我的话！