导言：语法？语什么法？

说话、写作、倾听或阅读——我们都在用词语和短语构建句子。语法就是指导我们构建并理解句子的规则体系，所有语言都拥有某种语法。

本书使用grammar（语法）一词时，这种"规则体系"并不包含诸如"绝不要以介词结尾"或"小子，别在这儿悬垂你的分词"之类的规定。这类规则固然有其价值，但本书主要探讨的并非这些。

那么，我们讨论的究竟是哪些规则呢？先看一个例子：

关键在于：这两个句子包含完全相同的词语，唯一区别只是 Devlin（德夫林）与 Alicia（艾丽西亚）的位置——而这一差别极大地改变了句子的含义。

有时，我们可以调换词语的位置而完全不改变意思：

按特定顺序排列词语会产生某种含义，重新安排则含义随之改变，另一些改动却完全不改变意思。这正是所谓“语法规则”的部分所指：某些词序和变化在特定方式下是有意义的，另一些则不是。

再看一例。假设我们这样改动句子：

同样的词语随意排列后便无法表达任何意思——这正是违反太多语法规则时的后果。

还有其他类型的规则：

作为英语使用者，我们知道 he（主格）和 him（宾格）都指 Devlin，而 she（主格）和 her（宾格）都指 Alicia。那么，为什么必须使用不同的词？为什么不能在两句话中都使用 he 和 she，而舍弃 him 和 her？

不能那样做，因为英语规则规定：he 和 she 出现在 caught（抓住）之前时，须使用一种屈折变化形式；出现在 caught 之后时，则须使用另一种屈折变化（him 和 her）。

如果你从小就说英语，即使从未有人教过，你也已经知道这条规则。你在很小的时候就凭直觉学会了它——仅仅通过听其他英语使用者说话便习得了——如今你很少需要停下来思考何时用 he、何时用 him。

但对于刚开始学习英语的人来说，可能必须刻意研习并练习这类规则。在此强调，对于将英语作为第二语言的初级学习者，绝对有比本书更合适的读物——本书或许并非你的最佳起点。

在此我们假设，读者对英语的许多此类规则已具备直觉性理解。我们会时常提及它们，因为它们有助于学习语法的其他内容。

但为什么呢？为什么？

无论何时研究语言，理解英语语法的基础都大有裨益。例如，学习成为更出色的写作者时，必须讨论语言，这就需要掌握一些关于句子结构——即语法——的术语和概念。

例如，我们可能讨论如何将被动句改写为主动句来改进写作。但要讨论并实施这一改进，就必须能识别被动动词（passive verb），并懂得如何将其转换为主动动词（active verb），进而对句子作出所有相关的调整。

英语语法中的术语和概念也适用于其他语言——许多概念适用于其他欧洲语言，也有一些适用于非欧洲语言。这意味着英语使用者可以借助已有的语法知识来帮助学习一门新语言。例如，已经理解了直接宾语（direct objects） 和 间接宾语（indirect objects） 的人，学习德语中的直接与间接宾语就会更加容易。

每当想要了解或讨论语言时，基本的语法术语和概念都可能派上用场——我们会在词典、参考书以及语言学和心理学的著作中遇到它们。

那么为什么要学习语法呢？为了成为更出色的写作者？为了学习一门新语言？为了研究语言学？为了成为英语教师？为了更有效地使用词典？如果你想做其中任何一件事，都会发现基本的语法知识很有帮助。

造句指南

简单陈述句（simple declarative sentence） 是语法研究的常见出发点。其他类型的句子固然重要，但我们从陈述形式开始。

陈述句（declarative sentence） 不提出问题，也不发出命令，它只是作出一个陈述、一个断言。以下句子均为陈述句：

在接下来的各章中，我们将主要关注陈述句。

但什么是 句子（sentence） 呢？一个常见的定义——你可能以前听过——是这样的：

一个句子是语言的一个单位，它包含一个主语（subject）和一个谓语（predicate），并表达一个完整的意思。

专业语言学家们听到这个定义，可能会发出嘘声、喝倒彩，甚至掷出成熟的番茄。（他们是一群难缠的家伙。）他们对此提出了大量反对意见，尤其是针对“完整的意思”这一模糊概念。但初级语法课程中常会遇到这一定义，因为它不要求学生掌握太多术语或概念。眼下，我们暂且接受这个熟悉的定义。不过先别急着开火——待我们多学一点之后，还会回过头来重新界定句子。（我们也会在第一章中讲解主语和谓语。）

这是什么样的语法？

研究语法有各种不同的路径。例如，你可能听说过generative grammar（生成语法，有时也称transformational-generative grammar，即转换-生成语法），它与语言学家诺姆·乔姆斯基相关。这是一种重要且有影响力的研究路径，但本书不会讨论它。不过，你可能会在语言学著作中遇到它，在那里你也会遇到此处讨论的许多术语。

本书所采用的研究路径有时被称为traditional grammar（传统语法）或classroom grammar（课堂语法），因为它常用于英语和现代语言课堂，且久已被传授其中。（语法向来是长篇大论地教，从不会三言两语带过。忍忍吧。）

你该做什么，还是你做了什么？

研究语法的路径也可分为prescriptive（规定性）与descriptive（描述性）两类。

简单地说，prescriptive grammar（规定性语法）告诉学生，在自己语言的standard dialect（标准方言）：即受过教育的说话者所使用的英语变体中，他们应当如何说、如何写。

Descriptive grammar（描述性语法）描述语言实际被使用的方式，即便使用者的方言并不标准。描述性语法很少对一个句子对错与否作出明确的判断。

与许多语法研究路径一样，后续各章所采用的方法在某种程度上是规定性与描述性的结合。本书describes（描述）Standard American English（标准美国英语）——受过教育的美国人在专业场合通常使用的英语变体——的语法，因此也含蓄地（有时明确地）prescribes（提倡）标准用法胜于其他用法。但我们在此学到的大部分内容，适用于英语的任何变体。

每一种语言都有其内在逻辑，尽管它有时可能并不一致。只要弄懂几条前提——通常是简单的——涉及词序、数、case（格）和tense（时态）等，你就能理解一门语言逻辑的某些方面，即便你尚未知晓所有的格与时态。你会看到，英语语法的许多特征清晰而简单地合乎逻辑。而有些则不然。（有些甚至根本没在尝试。）

需要多少语法知识？

这是一本入门书：它为你提供英语语法中最基础、最常用到的术语和概念。

相比之下，A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language（《英语语法大全》，Quirk、Greenbaum 等人著）长达 1792 页。The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language（《剑桥英语语法》，Pullum、Huddleston 等人著）长达 1860 页。

本书远没有那么完备，也没有那么长。（不客气。）

但即便是像本书这样基础的书，也颇具挑战性。本书包含大约 200 个语法术语，其中一些你可能见过，另一些则可能是全新的。英语（或任何其他语言）的运作方式是一个庞大的课题，即便一本旨在提供良好开端的入门教材，也会涵盖相当广的范围——正因如此，了解并善用本书所提供的资源十分重要。

如何使用本书

要牢固掌握所学内容，一个方法是完成每章末尾的练习，并通过书末的答案核对作业。如果出错了，就重新检视做错的练习，直到弄懂自己的错误。不要把答案写在书上——这样你便可以回到该章，反复使用这些练习进行复习和操练。

当你记不起某个术语的含义时，随时可以通过索引查找，或查阅书末的术语表，术语表还会指引你前往相关章节。

正如我们会一再提醒的那样，学习英语语法（或任何语言）时，手边放一本词典很重要。词典能帮你弄清某个词究竟是副词、介词还是连词，或者是不是动词的正确形式、名词的复数形式。

优秀的在线词典让查词快捷而轻松，并且提供你有时需要的语法信息。以下是一些可供参考的在线词典：

• www.merriam-webster.com
• www.dictionary.com
• www.ahdictionary.com（在线版American Heritage Dictionary（《美国传统词典》））

在线版Oxford English Dictionary（《牛津英语词典》）是一部庞大的历史词典，堪称极好的资源，但其信息量之大、范围之广可能令你应接不暇。我们建议你在开始学习语法时不要查阅它。（不过浏览一番仍然很有趣。）

现在，让我们进一步了解陈述句——进入第 1 章。

永远相伴：主语与谓语

We’ll begin with declarative sentences, sentences that make a statement instead of asking questions or giving orders. All of the examples you’ll see in the next several chapters are declarative sentences.

我们将从declarative sentences（陈述句）开始，这类句子用来陈述而不是提问或下命令。你在接下来几章中看到的所有例子都是陈述句。

As we begin, it’s helpful to know that declarative sentences in English usually follow this basic pattern:

在开始之际，了解一点很有帮助：英语中的陈述句通常遵循如下基本模式：

Subject + Predicate 主语 + 谓语

The subject comes first, and the predicate follows—usually.

主语在前，谓语在后——通常如此。

IT’S ALL ABOUT THE SUBJECT

一切都关于主语

The subject is the star, the prima donna, of the sentence. It’s the part of the sentence that names who or what the sentence is about.

subject（主语）是句子中的明星，是句中的prima donna（头牌）。它是句子中指明“句子所讲的人或事物”的那一部分。

The predicate always tells us something about the subject. Usually, the predicate tells us what the subject is doing (or has done), or it describes the subject.

predicate（谓语）总是告诉我们关于主语的某些情况。通常，谓语告诉我们主语在做什么（或已经做了什么），或者它对主语加以描述。

These very simple sentences follow the simple **Subject + ** **Predicate **pattern:

下面这些极为简单的句子遵循简单的Subject + Predicate（主语 + 谓语）模式：

Subject + Predicate Alice The cat Carroll Julie Fish Birds Hammerstein fell. smiled. wrote. sang. swim. fly. composed.

主语 + 谓语：爱丽丝跌倒了。那只猫微笑了。卡罗尔写了。朱莉唱了。鱼游。鸟飞。哈默斯坦创作了。

As these sentences illustrate, the subject and the predicate can each be only one word, so it’s possible to write a complete declarative sentence in just two words. (We cheated with *The cat * smiled.) In longer sentences, which we’ll see shortly, identifying the subjects and predicates of sentences becomes easy with practice.

正如这些句子所示，主语和谓语可以各自只有一个词，因此只用两个词就有可能写出一个完整的陈述句。（The cat smiled（那只猫微笑了）是我们耍了点小聪明。）在稍后我们将看到的较长的句子里，经过练习，辨认句子的主语和谓语会变得很容易。

THE SIMPLE AND THE COMPLETE

简单与完整

Every simple declarative sentence that we’ve seen contains a subject and a predicate, and the subject usually appears to the left of the predicate, at the beginning of the sentence or near it.

我们所见过的每一个简单陈述句都包含一个主语和一个谓语，而且主语通常出现在谓语的左侧，位于句首或其附近。

In these cases, the** complete subject and the complete ** predicate are each just one word long. There’s one exception: The cat.

在这些情形中，complete subject（完整主语）和complete predicate（完整谓语）各自只有一个词长。只有一个例外：The cat（那只猫）。

We can add more words to those subjects and predicates. We can add modifiers, words that describe the subject and the predicate:

我们可以给那些主语和谓语加上更多的词。我们可以添加modifiers（修饰语），即描述主语和谓语的词：

Birds Most fly. birds in the United States fly well.

Birds（鸟）Most（大多数）fly（飞）。birds in the United States（美国的大多数鸟）fly well（飞得很好）。

In this longer sentence, we call birds the simple subject and fly the simple predicate.

在这个较长的句子里，我们把birds（鸟）称为simple subject（简单主语），把fly（飞）称为simple predicate（简单谓语）。

We call Most birds in the United States the complete subject, and we call fly well the complete predicate. That is, the simple subject and all its modifiers make up the complete subject. And the

我们把Most birds in the United States（美国的大多数鸟）称为complete subject（完整主语），把fly well（飞得很好）称为complete predicate（完整谓语）。也就是说，简单主语及其全部修饰语共同构成完整主语。而

simple predicate with all its modifiers is the complete predicate. So, in Birds fly, the simple subject and the complete subject are identical, and so are the simple and complete predicates.

带有其全部修饰语的简单谓语就是完整谓语。因此，在Birds fly（鸟飞）中，简单主语与完整主语是相同的，简单谓语与完整谓语也是相同的。

Here are more examples, with the simple subjects and predicates in boldface:

下面还有更多例子，其中简单主语和简单谓语以粗体标出：

A beautiful day like today Mary’s cat **comes **too seldom. ran away yesterday.

A beautiful day like today（像今天这样美好的一天）comes（到来）too seldom（太少）。Mary’s cat（玛丽的猫）ran（跑）away（离开）yesterday（昨天）。

As the examples above show, some modifiers appear immedi- ately before the word they modify: *A, beautiful, Mary’s, too. *But some modifiers can appear afterward, too: *like today, seldom, * away, yesterday.

如上面的例子所示，有些修饰语紧挨在它们所修饰的词之前：A、beautiful、Mary’s、too。但有些修饰语也可以出现在其后：like today、seldom、away、yesterday。

In the next examples, we begin with the sentence Irises grow. In each example, the simple subject and predicate are in bold; the complete predicate is underlined; and the rest of the sentence (the part not underlined) is the complete subject:

在接下来的例子中，我们从Irises grow（鸢尾花生长）这个句子开始。在每个例子中，简单主语和谓语以粗体标出；完整谓语加下划线；句子中其余部分（未加下划线的部分）则是完整主语：

Irises Sometimes irises In the spring irises grow. grow well near the garage. grow well in our garden.

Irises（鸢尾花）grow（生长）。Sometimes（有时）irises（鸢尾花）grow well near the garage（在车库附近长得很好）。In the spring（春天）irises（鸢尾花）grow well in our garden（在我们花园里长得很好）。

Here again, some modifiers of grow appear immediately before or after the word they modify: well, near the garage, in our garden. And some modifiers of the predicate can even appear at some distance from grow: Sometimes, In the spring.

这里再次看到，grow（生长）的某些修饰语紧挨在所修饰词之前或之后：well、near the garage、in our garden。而谓语的某些修饰语甚至可以出现在离grow较远的地方：Sometimes、In the spring。

Here are some more pairs of sentences, with the simple subject and the simple predicate in bold type and the complete predicate underlined:

下面是更多成对的句子，其中简单主语和简单谓语以粗体标出，完整谓语加下划线：

Many **birds **in the U. S. **fly **south in the winter. In the winter, many birds in the U. S. **fly **south. **Oscar Hammerstein composed **rapidly in the winter of 1927. In the winter of 1927, **Oscar Hammerstein composed **rapidly.

美国许多birds（鸟）冬天fly（飞）south（向南方）。In the winter（冬天），许多birds（鸟）fly south（向南方）。 Oscar Hammerstein（奥斯卡·哈默斯坦）composed（创作）rapidly（迅速）in the winter of 1927（在1927年冬天）。In the winter of 1927（1927年冬天），Oscar Hammerstein composed rapidly（迅速创作）。

As you see in the second sentence of each pair, parts of the complete predicate can appear before the subject. This is a common sentence pattern, and we’ll have more to say about it in later chapters.

正如你在每对中的第二个句子所见，完整谓语的某些部分可以出现在主语之前。这是一种常见的句式，我们在后面的章节中还会详谈。

TRANSPOSED ORDER

倒装语序

In some sentences, it’s possible to put the entire predicate before the subject; this is called **transposed order (also known as inverted order). **In the following sentences, the simple subjects and predicates are in bold type, and the complete predicate is underlined:

在某些句子中，可以把整个谓语放在主语之前；这称为transposed order（倒装语序，也称为inverted order，即倒序）。在下面的句子中，简单主语和谓语以粗体标出，完整谓语加下划线：

the rain. the dawn. the steam locomotive. Softly fell Gently came Into the quiet village roared

the rain（雨）。the dawn（黎明）。the steam locomotive（蒸汽机车）。 Softly（轻轻地）fell（落下）the rain（雨）。Gently（温柔地）came（到来）the dawn（黎明）。Into the quiet village（驶入宁静的村庄）roared（轰鸣）the steam locomotive（蒸汽机车）。

Use transposed order with restraint, or it can become just a way of showing off with words.

使用倒装语序要有所节制，否则它可能沦为一种卖弄辞藻的方式。

In the next few chapters, we’ll learn more about subjects, predicates, and modifiers.

在接下来的几章中，我们将更多地了解主语、谓语和修饰语。

EXERCISES

练习

Answers to these exercises are in the back of the book. After you answer one set, check your answers before you go on—sometimes the answers will help you with the next set.

这些练习的答案在本书末尾。答完一组后，继续之前先核对答案——有时答案会帮助你做下一组。

**1a. **Write the definitions of the simple subject and the simple predicate.

1a. 写出简单主语和简单谓语的定义。

1b. In the following sentences, identify the simple subject and the simple predicate. To help you, the complete predicate is underlined.

1b. 在下面的句子中，辨认出简单主语和简单谓语。为帮助你，完整谓语已加下划线。

1. Rain falls.

2. Edward knocked at the door.

3. In the morning, the family ate on the porch.

4. In the morning, pancakes seemed like a good idea.

5. Into the night, into the darkness, recklessly rode Rudolpho.

6. 雨落下了。

7. 爱德华敲了敲门。

8. 早晨，一家人在门廊上吃饭。

9. 早晨，煎饼似乎是个好主意。

10. 冲入黑夜，冲入黑暗，鲁道夫鲁莽地骑马疾驰。

1c. You’ll get no help with these! Once again, identify the simple subject and the simple predicate. Then identify the complete subject and the complete predicate.

1c. 这些可没人帮你！再次辨认简单主语和简单谓语。然后辨认出完整主语和完整谓语。

1. Wendell behaved politely.

2. Tonight that nice family ate on the porch again.

3. Backward ran sentences. [Modified from Wolcott Gibbs.]

4. In the spring, the calla lilies were in bloom again.

5. This morning Rudolpho was waiting on the porch for breakfast.

6. 温德尔举止礼貌。

7. 今晚那户好心人又在门廊上吃饭。

8. 句子倒着跑。[改编自 Wolcott Gibbs（沃尔科特·吉布斯）。]

9. 春天，马蹄莲再次盛开。

10. 今天早晨，鲁道夫正在门廊上等候吃早餐。

必备要素：名词与动词

Nouns and verbs are two of the most basic and important concepts in grammar. 名词和动词是语法中最基本、最重要的概念之二。

SUBJECTS AND NOUNS

主语与名词

In the sentences we’ve seen, the simple subjects are all nouns. This traditional definition of nouns will serve our purpose: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. 在我们见过的句子中，简单主语都是名词。下面这个关于名词的传统定义足以满足我们的需要： 名词是表示人、地点、事物或概念的词。

Nouns name persons: man, woman, child, children, student, teacher, Mr. Morton, Oscar Hammerstein. 名词表示人：man、woman、child、children、student、teacher、Mr. Morton、Oscar Hammerstein。

They name places: kitchen, home, Main Street, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., North America, Earth, solar system, the Milky Way. 名词表示地点：kitchen、home、Main Street、St. Louis、Missouri、U.S.A.、North America、Earth、solar system、the Milky Way。

They name things: pen, ink, paper, printing press, telegraph, linotype, typewriter, computer, smart phone, internet. 名词表示事物：pen、ink、paper、printing press、telegraph、linotype、typewriter、computer、smart phone、internet。

Nouns also name ideas—that, is, abstractions: science, mathe- matics, truth, beauty, democracy, Platonism, Catholicism, Calvinism. 名词也表示概念——即抽象事物：science、mathematics、truth、beauty、democracy、Platonism、Catholicism、Calvinism。

Most simple subjects are nouns. 大多数简单主语都是名词。

PREDICATES AND VERBS

谓语与动词

In any sentence, the simple predicate is a verb—an indispens- able part of English sentences. For our purposes, this definition will do: A verb is a word or group of words that names an action or indicates a state of being. 在任何句子中，简单谓语都是一个动词——这是英语句子不可或缺的部分。就我们的目的而言，下面这一定义就足够了： 动词是表示动作或表明存在状态的词或词组。

There are two general classes of verb. One kind of verb—an action verb—names actions: 动词大致分为两类。一类动词——动作动词（action verb）——表示动作：

Hammerstein composed. George loves Ethel. Pearl painted Mr. Morton’s porch. Hammerstein composed.（汉默斯坦创作了乐曲。）George loves Ethel.（乔治爱着埃塞尔。）Pearl painted Mr. Morton’s porch.（珀尔粉刷了莫顿先生家的大门廊。）

Another kind of verb names “states of being”—that is, they appear in predicates that describe the subject. These verbs are called linking verbs. 另一类动词表示"存在状态"——也就是说，它们出现在描述主语的谓语中。这类动词被称为系动词（linking verbs）。

Gershwin was a composer. George became thoughtful. Pearl seems busy. Gershwin was a composer.（格什温是一位作曲家。）George became thoughtful.（乔治变得若有所思。）Pearl seems busy.（珀尔似乎很忙。）

There are thousands of verbs in English, and the great majority of them are action verbs: *sit, stand, hit, run, hide, seek, say, sing, * *create, declare, denounce, pontificate, shout, cry, laugh, *and all the rest. 英语中有成千上万个动词，其中绝大多数是动作动词：sit、stand、hit、run、hide、seek、say、sing、create、declare、denounce、pontificate、shout、cry、laugh，以及其余所有动词。

Some action verbs name activities that are not actions in the usual sense: have, pause, think, consider, wait. 有些动作动词所表示的"活动"在通常意义上并非动作：have、pause、think、consider、wait。

There are relatively few linking verbs in English. The most common are the eight forms of the verb be: 英语中的系动词相对较少。最常见的是动词 be 的八种形式：

be are been is being was am were be are been is being was am were （以上为动词 be 的八种形式。）

It’s helpful to commit all the forms of be to memory, because you’ll need to recognize them again and again in this book and in other works about English grammar. 记住 be 的所有形式很有帮助，因为你在本书以及其他关于英语语法的著作中，都需要反复识别这些形式。

Here are some of the other linking verbs*: seem, become, * remain. Many linking verbs are related to our senses: look, feel, * smell, sound, taste, appear: 下面是其他一些系动词：seem、become、remain。许多系动词与我们的感官有关：look、feel、smell、sound、taste、appear：

Bill looked angry. Bill sounded angry. Bill felt** **angry. The kitchen smelled wonderful. The soup tasted good. Bill looked angry.（比尔看起来很生气。）Bill sounded angry.（比尔听起来很生气。）Bill felt angry.（比尔感到生气。）The kitchen smelled wonderful.（厨房闻起来很棒。）The soup tasted good.（这汤尝起来不错。）

The examples of linking verbs may seem confusing because some verbs can be used as action verbs (Bob appeared suddenly) or as linking verbs (Bob appeared ill). 系动词的例子可能令人困惑，因为有些动词既可用作动作动词（Bob appeared suddenly / 鲍勃突然出现），也可用作系动词（Bob appeared ill / 鲍勃看起来病了）。

To clarify the differences, consider the following pairs of sentences. The first sentence in each pair contains a linking verb; the second contains an action verb: 为澄清区别，请看下面几组句子对。每对中第一句含有系动词，第二句含有动作动词：

Frank felt well. Frank felt the cold air. Marsha looked wonderful. Marsha looked out the window. The tomatoes tasted sweet. We tasted the tomatoes. Frank felt well. Frank felt the cold air. （弗兰克感觉良好。/ 弗兰克感觉到冷空气。） Marsha looked wonderful. Marsha looked out the window. （玛莎看起来很棒。/ 玛莎向窗外望去。） The tomatoes tasted sweet. We tasted the tomatoes. （这些西红柿尝起来很甜。/ 我们品尝了这些西红柿。）

Ed remained stubborn. Ed remained in his room. Ed remained stubborn.（埃德依然固执。）Ed remained in his room.（埃德待在他的房间里。）

In each pair, the first sentence with the linking verb describes the subject in some way. The second sentence with the action verb tells us what the subject did. Many of the words that follow the verbs are not modifiers but other kinds of words that we’ll learn about soon. 在每一对中，含系动词的第一句以某种方式描述主语；含动作动词的第二句则告诉我们主语做了什么。动词后面的许多词并不是修饰语，而是我们很快就会学到的其他词类。

AUXILIARY VERBS AND MAIN VERBS

助动词与主动词

Compare the verbs in these pairs of sentences: 比较下列各对句子中的动词：

Mr. Morton broke the vase. Mr. Morton has broken another vase. Jeff sang an old Irish song. Jeff should have sung an old Lithuanian song. Martha won the race. Martha should have been winning all along. Mr. Morton broke the vase. Mr. Morton has broken another vase. （莫顿先生打碎了花瓶。/ 莫顿先生又打碎了另一个花瓶。） Jeff sang an old Irish song. Jeff should have sung an old Lithuanian song. （杰夫唱了一首古老的爱尔兰歌曲。/ 杰夫本该唱一首古老的立陶宛歌曲。） Martha won the race. Martha should have been winning all along. （玛莎赢了比赛。/ 玛莎本该一路领先才对。）

In the second sentence of each pair, the simple predicate consists of more than one verb. In any sentence, the verb can be one to four words long: 在每对的第二句中，简单谓语由不止一个动词组成。在任何句子中，动词的长度可以是一到四个词：

Mr. Morton broke the vase. Mr. Morton has broken another vase. Mr. Morton has been breaking vases all afternoon. Mr. Morton should not have been juggling vases. Mr. Morton broke the vase. Mr. Morton has broken another vase. Mr. Morton has been breaking vases all afternoon. Mr. Morton should not have been juggling vases. （莫顿先生打碎了花瓶。/ 莫顿先生又打碎了另一个花瓶。/ 莫顿先生整个下午都在打碎花瓶。/ 莫顿先生本不该一直抛接花瓶。）

In any sentence with two or more words in the verb, the rightmost verb is called the main verb. In the four sentences just above, broke, broken, breaking, and juggling are the main verbs. 在任何由两个或更多词构成的动词中，最右边的动词称为主要动词（main verb）。在上面的四个句子中，broke、broken、breaking 和 juggling 都是主要动词。

All the other words in the underlined verb are auxiliary verbs (sometimes called helping verbs). Together the auxiliary verbs and the main verb make the simple predicate, which is the entire verb of the sentence. The simple predicate can be one to four words long and includes only the main verb (which is always present) and its auxiliary verbs (if any). 下划线动词中的所有其他词都是助动词（auxiliary verbs，有时称为 helping verbs）。助动词与主要动词共同构成简单谓语，即句子的整个动词。简单谓语的长度可以是一到四个词，且只包含主要动词（始终存在）及其助动词（如有）。

It is the main verb that determines if the simple predicate is an action verb or linking verb. 决定简单谓语是动作动词还是系动词的，正是主要动词。

Here’s a list of the auxiliary verbs in English: 以下是英语中的助动词列表：

am are is was were be been being have has had do does did can could shall should will would may might must am are is was were be been being have has had do does did can could shall should will would may might must （以上分别是 be、have、do、情态助动词以及 may/might/must 的各类形式。）

There are eight forms of be, three forms of have, three forms of do, three rhyming pairs (can/could; shall/should; will/would), and three *m- *verbs. Sometimes words like ought to and have to are included among the auxiliaries. We’ll discuss those later in Chapter 20. be 有八种形式，have 有三种形式，do 有三种形式，三组押韵对（can/could；shall/should；will/would），以及三个以 m 开头的动词。有时像 ought to 和 have to 这样的词也被归入助动词。我们会在第 20 章讨论它们。

You don’t have to memorize the entire list, but you should refer to it often until you can recognize auxiliary verbs when you see them. You should also learn all the forms of the verb *be *in the first column. 你不必记住整张列表，但应当经常查阅，直到一看到助动词就能辨认出来。你还应当掌握第一栏中动词 be 的所有形式。

Remember that auxiliary verbs always come before the main verb. Also notice that some auxiliaries can be used as main verbs: 记住，助动词总是位于主要动词之前。还要注意到，有些助动词本身也可以用作主要动词：

Rhianna was planning the party. Rhianna was early. [*Was *is the auxiliary.] [*Was *is the main verb.] Rhianna was planning the party. Rhianna was early. （蕾哈娜在筹划派对。/ 蕾哈娜到得早。） [*Was *is the auxiliary.]（[Was 是助动词。]） [*Was *is the main verb.]（[Was 是主要动词。]）

The Browns have purchased the gift. The Browns have the receipt. [Have is the auxiliary.] [Have is the main verb.] The Browns have purchased the gift. The Browns have the receipt. （布朗一家买了礼物。/ 布朗一家拿着收据。） [Have is the auxiliary.]（[Have 是助动词。]） [Have is the main verb.]（[Have 是主要动词。]）

The Greens do like reading. The Greens do the dishes every day. [Do is the auxiliary.] [Do is the main verb.] The Greens do like reading. The Greens do the dishes every day. （格林一家确实喜欢阅读。/ 格林一家每天洗碗。） [Do is the auxiliary.]（[Do 是助动词。]） [Do is the main verb.]（[Do 是主要动词。]）

Still other auxiliaries in the list are used only as auxiliaries, as in these examples: 列表中的其他一些助动词仅用作助动词，如下例：

Al can go. Al could go. Al will go. Al would go. Al shall go. Al should just go. Hal may go. Hal might tango. No, Hal must go. Al can go. Al could go. Al will go. Al would go. Al shall go. Al should just go. （阿尔能去。/ 阿尔本可以去。/ 阿尔会去。/ 阿尔就应当去。/ 阿尔该走了。/ 阿尔真该走。） Hal may go. Hal might tango. No, Hal must go. （哈尔可以去。/ 哈尔也许会跳探戈。/ 不，哈尔必须走。）

Notice that many of the auxiliaries are present or past forms: *Could, should, *and would are the past forms of *can, shall, and * will. We see this usage in sentences like this: 注意，许多助动词有现在时或过去时形式：could、should 和 would 分别是 can、shall 和 will 的过去式。我们可以从这样的句子中看出这种用法：

My uncle can play the harmonica well. My late uncle could play the harmonica well. My uncle can play the harmonica well.（我叔叔很会吹口琴。）My late uncle could play the harmonica well.（我已故的叔叔很会吹口琴。）

In Chapter 20, we’ll see some of these same words used as modal auxiliaries, which often indicate a future possible action: 在第 20 章，我们会看到其中一些同样的词用作情态助动词（modal auxiliaries），它们通常表示将来可能发生的动作：

If you practiced, you could play the harmonica well. If you practiced, you could play the harmonica well.（如果你练习过，你就能把口琴吹得很好。）

The verb do is also worth a bit of attention, because we use it in English as an auxiliary for questions and for emphasis: 动词 do 也值得稍加留意，因为在英语中我们用它作助动词，用于疑问句和表示强调：

Does Paula write well? Yes, Paula does write well. Did Paula arrive early? Yes, Paula did arrive early. Does Paula write well? Yes, Paula does write well. （葆拉写得好吗？是的，葆拉确实写得好。） Did Paula arrive early? Yes, Paula did arrive early. （葆拉到得早吗？是的，葆拉确实到得早。）

When you’re learning another language and want to translate an English sentence that uses do for a question or for emphasis, you’ll probably find that other languages don’t use their equivalent of do in this way. 当你学习另一种语言，并想翻译一个用 do 来构成疑问句或表示强调的英语句子时，你可能会发现其他语言并不这样使用与 do 对等的词。

Sometimes the complete verb is interrupted by another word or two. These usually appear after the first auxiliary verb: 有时，整个动词会被另外一两个词打断。这些词通常出现在第一个助动词之后：

Mr. Morton has actually broken another vase. Mr. Morton should probably not have been juggling vases. We will definitely not be inviting Mr. Morton back. Mr. Morton has actually broken another vase. Mr. Morton should probably not have been juggling vases. We will definitely not be inviting Mr. Morton back. （莫顿先生实际上又打碎了一个花瓶。/ 莫顿先生大概本不该一直抛接花瓶。/ 我们绝对不会再邀请莫顿先生回来了。）

The words that interrupt the verb are adverbs, which we’ll learn about shortly. 打断动词的那些词是副词（adverbs），我们很快就会学到。

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者的要点

1. Subject-verb agreement.

1. 主谓一致。

One of the most basic features of English is that the form of the verb sometimes changes to match a change in the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb will have one form: 英语最基本的特征之一是，动词的形式有时会随之改变，以与主语的变化保持一致。如果主语是单数，动词会采用一种形式：

Pam sings. Mom drives. Ed listens. Pam sings.（帕姆唱歌。）Mom drives.（妈妈开车。）Ed listens.（埃德倾听。）

But if the subject is plural, the verb may take another form: 但如果主语是复数，动词可能采用另一种形式：

Pam and Jim sing. Mom and Dad drive. Ed and Alice listen. Pam and Jim sing.（帕姆和吉姆唱歌。）Mom and Dad drive.（妈妈和爸爸开车。）Ed and Alice listen.（埃德和爱丽丝倾听。）

The change in the verb for singular and plural subjects is called subject-verb agreement. The verb must agree with the subject. 动词因主语单复数而发生的变化，称为主谓一致（subject-verb agreement）。动词必须与主语一致。

Agreement doesn’t make the verb change in every case. For instance, the verb doesn’t change form when the sentence is about something that happened in the past: 一致并不总会使动词改变形式。例如，当句子讲述过去发生的事时，动词并不改变形式：

Pam sang. Pam and Jim sang. Mom drove. Mom and Dad drove. Ed listened. Ed and Alice listened. Pam sang. Pam and Jim sang. （帕姆唱了歌。/ 帕姆和吉姆唱了歌。） Mom drove. Mom and Dad drove. （妈妈开了车。/ 妈妈和爸爸开了车。） Ed listened. Ed and Alice listened. （埃德倾听了。/ 埃德和爱丽丝倾听了。）

If you’ve spoken English since you were young, you probably make the verb agree without even being aware of it because it’s second nature to you. We’ll look more closely at agreement in Chapter 9. 如果你从小就讲英语，你很可能下意识地就让动词保持了一致，因为这对你来说已是第二天性。我们将在第 9 章更仔细地考察一致问题。

2. May and can.

2. may 与 can。

As you may already know, there is an important difference between the auxiliary verbs may and can. May is often used to ask or grant permission or to indicate possibility: 正如你可能已经知道的，助动词 may 和 can 之间有一个重要区别。may 常用来询问或给予许可，或表示可能性：

May Jim leave the room? Yes, Jim may. Jim may leave, but he hasn’t decided. May Jim leave the room?（吉姆可以离开房间吗？）Yes, Jim may.（是的，吉姆可以。）Jim may leave, but he hasn’t decided.（吉姆可以离开，但他还没决定。）

Can is used to discuss ability: can 用来表示能力：

Can Jim reach the top shelf? I think he can. Can Jim reach the top shelf?（吉姆够得着最上面的架子吗？）I think he can.（我想他够得着。）

In everyday conversation, we often confuse can and may, and it seldom matters because our listeners can understand us in 在日常对话中，我们常常混淆 can 和 may，但这很少有关系，因为听众能在

the immediate context. In careful writing, the distinction may be important, and failing to observe it is sometimes seen as a mark of a careless writer. 当下的语境中理解我们。在严谨的写作中，这一区别可能很重要，而未能注意它有时会被视为粗心作者的标志。

EXERCISES

练习

**2a. **In the sentences below, underline the complete predicates. Then enclose the simple subjects and simple predicates in brackets, like this: 2a. 在下面的句子中，给完整谓语加下划线。然后把简单主语和简单谓语用方括号括起来，如下例：

[Sue] [did call] yesterday. [Sue] [did call] yesterday.

1. The family was having coffee.

2. 那一家人正在喝咖啡。

3. The family was content.

4. 那一家人很满足。

5. Without warning, John entered the room.

6. 毫无预兆地，约翰走进了房间。

7. John made an announcement.

8. 约翰发布了一项声明。

9. The vases are gone.

10. 花瓶都不见了。

11. The family became furious.

12. 那一家人变得怒不可遏。

13. Mr. Morton had struck again.

14. 莫顿先生又出手了。

15. Mr. Morton had some nerve.

16. 莫顿先生厚颜无耻。

17. Someday that man will regret his actions.

18. 总有一天，那个人会为他的行为感到后悔。

19. Mr. Morton’s reputation has been damaged by these allegations.

20. 莫顿先生的声誉已被这些指控所损害。

21. Everywhere people are hiding their vases.

22. 各处的人们都在藏起他们的花瓶。

23. Mr. Morton seems a little strange.

24. 莫顿先生似乎有点古怪。

**2b. **Now, in the sentences that you just examined, identify action verbs (with A) and linking verbs (with L), as in this example: 2b. 现在，在你刚才分析过的句子中，标出动作动词（用 A）和系动词（用 L），如下例：

[Sue] [did call] yesterday. (A) [Sue] [did call] yesterday. (A)

2c. Finally, identify the auxiliary verbs and the main verb in each sentence you’ve examined. Remember, if there’s only one verb, it must be the main verb. 2c. 最后，标出你已分析过的每个句子中的助动词和主要动词。记住，如果只有一个动词，那它必定是主要动词。

把握时态：动词时态、主要词形与不规则动词

This chapter is long, but be at ease, Louise. Much of this chapter consists of examples that illustrate the ideas discussed here. Most of it is not difficult. 这一章很长，不过放轻松，露易丝。本章大部分内容由阐释此处所讨论观念的例句构成。其中绝大部分并不难。

There’s a good deal to know about verbs, including the matters of verb** tenses** and the related notions of the principal parts of verbs and the regular and irregular verbs. 关于动词有许多知识需要了解，包括动词时态（tenses）的相关问题，以及与之相关的动词主要词形（principal parts）、规则动词（regular verbs）与不规则动词（irregular verbs）等概念。

The good news is that you know much of this already. You’ve used the tenses and principal parts ever since you learned to talk. What may be new to you here are the terms that we apply to them and the way we organize them. So relax, Max. 好消息是你已经掌握了其中大部分内容。自从学会说话，你就一直在使用时态和主要词形。对你来说可能新鲜的是我们用来指称它们的术语，以及我们组织它们的方式。所以放宽心，麦克斯。

THE TENSES

时态

*Tense? *We don’t mean over-caffeinated verbs. We mean that, in the right context, verbs communicate that an action took place in the present, past, or future. 时态（Tense）？ 我们指的不是喝了太多咖啡因的动词。我们的意思是，在恰当的语境中，动词能传达某个动作发生在现在、过去或将来。

English has four sets of tenses, and each set contains a present, a past, and a future tense, each with its own distinctions in refer- ence to time. Here we’ll examine briefly all four sets: 英语有四组时态，每组都包含现在时、过去时和将来时，各自在时间指称上有所区别。这里我们简要考察全部四组：

The simple tenses: present, past, and future. The perfect tenses: present, past, and future. 简单时态（simple tenses）：现在时、过去时、将来时。完成时态（perfect tenses）：现在时、过去时、将来时。

The simple progressive tenses: present, past, and future. The perfect progressive tenses: present, past, and future. 简单进行时态（simple progressive tenses）：现在时、过去时、将来时。完成进行时态（perfect progressive tenses）：现在时、过去时、将来时。

THE SIMPLE TENSES

简单时态

These are the tenses we use most often: 这些是我们最常用的时态：

Today I phone my mother. Yesterday I phoned my mother. Tomorrow I will phone my mother. Today I phone my mother. Yesterday I phoned my mother. Tomorrow I will phone my mother. （今天我给母亲打电话。/ 昨天我给母亲打了电话。/ 明天我将给母亲打电话。）

SIMPLE PRESENT: SIMPLE PAST: SIMPLE FUTURE: SIMPLE PRESENT:（简单现在时：） SIMPLE PAST:（简单过去时：） SIMPLE FUTURE:（简单将来时：）

Notice that we seldom use the simple present in a sentence like “Today I phone my mother.” Instead, we use the simple past: 注意，我们很少在像 “Today I phone my mother” 这样的句子中使用简单现在时。相反，我们会用简单过去时：

Today I phoned my mother. Today I phoned my mother.（今天我给母亲打了电话。）

Or we use the simple future, 或者我们用简单将来时，

Today I will phone my mother. Today I will phone my mother.（今天我将给母亲打电话。）

Or we use a tense that we’ll examine in a moment, the present** ** progressive tense: 或者我们使用一种稍后将考察的时态——现在进行时态：

I’m phoning my mother right now. I’m phoning my mother right now.（我现在正给母亲打电话。）

But we’ll continue to use this somewhat unusual form in our examples of the simple present. 但我们在简单现在时的例句中，仍会继续使用这种有些不寻常的形式。

Here are more examples of the simple tenses: 下面是简单时态的更多例子：

Today I talk. Yesterday I talked. Tomorrow I will talk. SIMPLE PRESENT: SIMPLE PAST: SIMPLE FUTURE: Today I talk. Yesterday I talked. Tomorrow I will talk. （今天我说。/ 昨天我说了。/ 明天我将说。） SIMPLE PRESENT:（简单现在时：） SIMPLE PAST:（简单过去时：） SIMPLE FUTURE:（简单将来时：）

Today I walk. Yesterday I walked. Tomorrow I will walk. SIMPLE PRESENT: SIMPLE PAST: SIMPLE FUTURE: Today I walk. Yesterday I walked. Tomorrow I will walk. （今天我走。/ 昨天我走了。/ 明天我将走。） SIMPLE PRESENT:（简单现在时：） SIMPLE PAST:（简单过去时：） SIMPLE FUTURE:（简单将来时：）

Today I build. Yesterday I built. Tomorrow I will build. SIMPLE PRESENT: SIMPLE PAST: SIMPLE FUTURE: Today I build. Yesterday I built. Tomorrow I will build. （今天我建造。/ 昨天我建造了。/ 明天我将建造。） SIMPLE PRESENT:（简单现在时：） SIMPLE PAST:（简单过去时：） SIMPLE FUTURE:（简单将来时：）

As these examples show, we create the simple present tense by using the simplest possible form of a verb. The simple present ends with -s in cases like these: he phones, he talks, he builds. 正如这些例子所示，我们用动词最简单的形式来构成简单现在时。在 he phones、he talks、he builds 这样的情形中，简单现在时以 -s 结尾。

For the great majority of English verbs, we create the simple past tense by adding -d (as in phoned) or -ed (as in talked, walked, * or hunted*) to the present form. In a few cases, we make the past by adding -t (as in built). 对于绝大多数英语动词，我们通过在现在式后加 -d（如 phoned）或 -ed（如 talked、walked 或 hunted）来构成简单过去时。少数情况下，我们通过加 -t（如 built）来构成过去式。

With all verbs, we create the simple future tense by adding the auxiliary verb will to the simple present form. 对于所有动词，我们都通过把助动词 will 加在简单现在式上来构成简单将来时。

THE PERFECT TENSES

完成时态

The perfect tenses are not called perfect because they’re flawless. (Only your grammar teacher is flawless.) They are called perfect because the perfect tenses describe actions that have already been completed (i.e., perfected)* at some point in the past, present, or future. 完成时态（perfect tenses）被称为"完成"，并不是因为它们完美无缺（只有你的语法老师才完美无缺）。它们被称为完成*，是因为完成时态描述的是在过去、现在或将来某个时刻已经完成的动作（即"完善"了的）。

All the perfect tenses are based on a form of the main verb called the past participle, which in most verbs is identical to the form in the simple past tense. (We’ll see more of the past participle a bit later.) 所有完成时态都基于主要动词的一种形式，称为过去分词（past participle），在大多数动词中它与简单过去时的形式相同。（稍后我们会更多地看到过去分词。）

Verbs in the present perfect tense always add the auxiliary verb *have *(or has) to the past participle form. They refer to actions that were recently completed: 现在完成时态的动词总是把助动词 have（或 has）加在过去分词形式上。它们指最近完成的动作：

I have called my mother today. She has called her mother today. I have called my mother today. She has called her mother today. （我今天给母亲打过电话了。/ 她今天给她的母亲打过电话了。）

Verbs in the past perfect tense** always **add the auxiliary had to the past participle form. They refer to actions completed at some point in the past: 过去完成时态的动词总是把助动词 had 加在过去分词形式上。它们指在过去某个时刻已完成的动作：

I had called my mother by noon yesterday. I had called my mother by noon yesterday.（昨天的正午之前，我已经给母亲打过电话了。）

The future perfect tense, like the simple future tense, always begins with the auxiliary *will, *followed by have: 将来完成时态与简单将来时一样，总是以助动词 will 开头，其后接 have：

By noon tomorrow I will have called my mother*.* By noon tomorrow I will have called my mother.（到明天正午之前，我将已经给母亲打过电话了。）

Here are some examples: 下面是一些例子：

Today I have talked. As of yesterday, I had talked. By this time tomorrow I will have talked. PRESENT PERFECT: PAST PERFECT: FUTURE PERFECT: Today I have talked. As of yesterday, I had talked. By this time tomorrow I will have talked. （今天我说过了。/ 截至昨天，我已经说过了。/ 到明天这个时候，我将已经说过了。） PRESENT PERFECT:（现在完成时：） PAST PERFECT:（过去完成时：） FUTURE PERFECT:（将来完成时：）

Today I have walked. As of yesterday, I had walked. By this time tomorrow I will have walked. PRESENT PERFECT: PAST PERFECT: FUTURE PERFECT: Today I have walked. As of yesterday, I had walked. By this time tomorrow I will have walked. （今天我走过路了。/ 截至昨天，我已经走过路了。/ 到明天这个时候，我将已经走过路了。） PRESENT PERFECT:（现在完成时：） PAST PERFECT:（过去完成时：） FUTURE PERFECT:（将来完成时：）

Today I have complained. As of yesterday, I had complained. By this time tomorrow I will have complained. PRESENT PERFECT: PAST PERFECT: FUTURE PERFECT: Today I have complained. As of yesterday, I had complained. By this time tomorrow I will have complained. （今天我抱怨过了。/ 截至昨天，我已经抱怨过了。/ 到明天这个时候，我将已经抱怨过了。） PRESENT PERFECT:（现在完成时：） PAST PERFECT:（过去完成时：） FUTURE PERFECT:（将来完成时：）

If you compare the main verbs in these perfect tense sentences with the main verbs in the simple past sentences that we saw earlier, you’ll see that they are exactly the same words. This is a point that we’ll return to when we discuss regular and irregular verbs. 如果你把这些完成时态句子中的主要动词，与前面看到的简单过去时句子中的主要动词作比较，会发现它们完全是同样的词。这一点我们在讨论规则动词与不规则动词时还会回到。

THE SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE AND PERFECT

简单进行时态与

PROGRESSIVE TENSES

完成进行时态

The simple progressive tenses refer to actions that have been in progress at a particular point in time. The main verbs in 简单进行时态（simple progressive tenses）指的是在某个特定时间点正在进行的动作。进行时态中的主要动词

the progressive tenses always end in -ing, and they always take an auxiliary verb that is a form of the verb *be. * —进行时态中的动词总是以 -ing 结尾，并且总是带有一个作为助动词的、动词 be 的形式。

The future progressive tense always begins with the auxiliaries will be. Here are some examples: 将来进行时态总是以助动词 will be 开头。下面是一些例子：

Today I am phoning. Yesterday I was phoning. Tomorrow I will be phoning. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: PAST PROGRESSIVE: FUTURE PROGRESSIVE: Today I am phoning. Yesterday I was phoning. Tomorrow I will be phoning. （今天我正在打电话。/ 昨天我当时在打电话。/ 明天我将在打电话。） PRESENT PROGRESSIVE:（现在进行时：） PAST PROGRESSIVE:（过去进行时：） FUTURE PROGRESSIVE:（将来进行时：）

Today I am hunting. Yesterday I was hunting. Tomorrow I will be hunting. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: PAST PROGRESSIVE: FUTURE PROGRESSIVE: Today I am hunting. Yesterday I was hunting. Tomorrow I will be hunting. （今天我在打猎。/ 昨天我当时在打猎。/ 明天我将在打猎。） PRESENT PROGRESSIVE:（现在进行时：） PAST PROGRESSIVE:（过去进行时：） FUTURE PROGRESSIVE:（将来进行时：）

Today I am griping. Yesterday I was griping. Tomorrow I will be griping. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: PAST PROGRESSIVE: FUTURE PROGRESSIVE: Today I am griping. Yesterday I was griping. Tomorrow I will be griping. （今天我在抱怨。/ 昨天我当时在抱怨。/ 明天我将在抱怨。） PRESENT PROGRESSIVE:（现在进行时：） PAST PROGRESSIVE:（过去进行时：） FUTURE PROGRESSIVE:（将来进行时：）

In the perfect progressive tenses, we describe actions that have been in progress but were completed* *(or will be completed) in the present, past, or future. 在完成进行时态（perfect progressive tenses）中，我们描述的是那些一直在进行、但在现在、过去或将来已经（或将要）完成的动作。

The main verb is still an -ing form, and it always has two aux- iliaries: a form of have followed by been. In fact, all the auxiliaries in all tenses of the perfect progressive are perfect tenses of the verb be. In the present perfect progress, the auxiliaries are have been * or (with third-person singular subjects) has been. In the past, *they are had been. And, of course, in the future perfect progressive, the auxiliaries are will have been. 主要动词仍是 -ing 形式，并且它总是带有两个助动词：一个 have 的形式，后接 been。事实上，完成进行时态所有时态中的助动词，都是动词 be 的完成时态形式。在现在完成进行时中，助动词是 have been 或（在第三人称单数主语下）has been。在过去完成时中，它们是 had been。当然，在将来完成进行时中，助动词是 will have been。

Today I have been phoning. Yesterday I had been phoning. By this time tomorrow I will have been phoning. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: Today I have been phoning. Yesterday I had been phoning. By this time tomorrow I will have been phoning. （今天我一直在打电话。/ 昨天我之前一直在打电话。/ 到明天这个时候我将一直在打电话。） PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:（现在完成进行时：） PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:（过去完成进行时：） FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:（将来完成进行时：）

Today I have been hunting. Yesterday I had been hunting. By this time tomorrow I will have been hunting. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: Today I have been hunting. Yesterday I had been hunting. By this time tomorrow I will have been hunting. （今天我一直在打猎。/ 昨天我之前一直在打猎。/ 到明天这个时候我将一直在打猎。） PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:（现在完成进行时：） PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:（过去完成进行时：） FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:（将来完成进行时：）

Today I have been grousing. Yesterday I had been grousing. By this time tomorrow I will have been grousing. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: Today I have been grousing. Yesterday I had been grousing. By this time tomorrow I will have been grousing. （今天我一直在发牢骚。/ 昨天我之前一直在发牢骚。/ 到明天这个时候我将一直在发牢骚。） PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:（现在完成进行时：） PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:（过去完成进行时：） FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:（将来完成进行时：）

THE THREE (OR FOUR) PRINCIPAL PARTS

三个（或四个）主要词形

Most English verbs have consistent verb forms that we use to create the tenses we’ve just examined. These are called regular ** verbs, which means that the form to create the past tense and the perfect tenses are the same. That is, in both the simple past tense and the perfect tenses, we add *–d *or –ed, or (in a few cases) add a final -t. No other change in spelling happens, as you’ll see in the table below. 大多数英语动词都有一致的形式，我们用它们来构成刚才考察过的时态。这些被称为规则动词**（regular verbs），这意味着构成过去时和完成时态的形式是相同的。也就是说，无论是在简单过去时还是完成时态中，我们都是加 –d 或 –ed，或者（少数情况）加词尾 -t。如你在下表中将看到的，拼写不会发生其他变化。

So we say that every verb (except some auxiliary verbs) has three** principal parts**: the present, the past, and the past ** participle (which is the form used with have for perfect tenses). These are usually presented in a table like this: 所以我们说，每个动词（少数助动词除外）都有三个主要词形**（principal parts）：现在式、过去式，以及过去分词（past participle，即用于完成时态、与 have 连用的形式）。它们通常以下表形式呈现：

present

past

past participle

现在式

过去式

过去分词

I talk I hunt I phone I build I talked I hunted I phoned I built I have talked I have hunted I have phoned I have built I talk I hunt I phone I build I talked I hunted I phoned I built I have talked I have hunted I have phoned I have built （我说话 / 我打猎 / 我打电话 / 我建造）

All of these are regular verbs. The past and past participle are the same word. 所有这些都是规则动词。过去式与过去分词是同一个词。

Notice the relatively new verb to phone. Newly-created English verbs are always regular: fax, faxed; text, texted; friend, friended. (But there is at least one exception:* We hung out at the mall.)* 注意相对较新的动词 to phone。新创造的英语动词总是规则的：fax、faxed；text、texted；friend、friended。（但至少有一个例外：We hung out at the mall. / 我们在商场里闲逛。）

When we speak of a fourth principal part, it’s always the present participle, the -ing form used for progressive tenses: talking, hunting, phoning, building. And the -ing form is easy. 当我们说到第四个主要词形时，它总是现在分词（present participle），即用于进行时态的 -ing 形式：talking、hunting、phoning、building。而 -ing 形式很简单。

IRREGULAR VERBS

不规则动词

Irregular verbs are less consistent in their past and past participle forms. Although English has fewer irregular verbs than regular, there are hundreds of them. Many are among the most commonly used verbs in English. 不规则动词（irregular verbs）的过去式与过去分词形式一致性较差。虽然英语中不规则动词比规则动词少，但也有数百个。其中许多是英语中最常用的动词。

Here are a small number: 下面列出一小部分：

present

past

past participle

现在式

过去式

过去分词

I begin I began I have begun I break I broke I have broken I bring I brought I have brought I drink I drank I have drunk I drive I drove I have driven I fly I flew I have flown I freeze I froze I have frozen I know I knew I have known I ride I rode I have ridden I ring I rang I have rung I see I saw I have seen I sink I sank I have sunk I speak I spoke I have spoken I swim I swam I have swum I swing I swung I have swung I take I took I have taken I write I wrote I have written I begin I began I have begun I break I broke I have broken I bring I brought I have brought I drink I drank I have drunk I drive I drove I have driven I fly I flew I have flown I freeze I froze I have frozen I know I knew I have known I ride I rode I have ridden I ring I rang I have rung I see I saw I have seen I sink I sank I have sunk I speak I spoke I have spoken I swim I swam I have swum I swing I swung I have swung I take I took I have taken I write I wrote I have written （我开始 / 我打破 / 我带来 / 我喝 / 我驾驶 / 我飞 / 我冻结 / 我知道 / 我骑 / 我按铃 / 我看见 / 我下沉 / 我说 / 我游泳 / 我摇摆 / 我拿 / 我写）

All of us make errors now and then with some of the irregular verbs, and it’s a good idea to identify those that give you the most trouble and study them. The table above gives you some of the most common irregulars, and you can find complete lists in many 我们所有人都会时不时在某些不规则动词上出错，最好找出那些最让你头疼的动词并加以学习。上表列出了一些最常见的不规则动词，你也可以在许多

grammar books and on the Internet. A dictionary can always help you with specific verbs. 语法书和互联网上找到完整列表。遇到具体动词时，词典总能帮到你。

One way to study irregulars is to group the verbs that are similar in their past and past participle forms, like this: 学习不规则动词的一个方法，是把那些过去式和过去分词形式相似的动词分组，如下：

present

past

past participle

现在式

过去式

过去分词

I begin I began I have begun I drink I drank I have drunk I ring I rang I have rung I sink I sank I have sunk I swim I swam I have swum I break I broke I have broken I freeze I froze I have frozen I speak I spoke I have spoken I drive I drove I have driven I ride I rode I have ridden I write I wrote I have written I fly I flew I have flown I know I knew I have known I begin I began I have begun I drink I drank I have drunk I ring I rang I have rung I sink I sank I have sunk I swim I swam I have swum I break I broke I have broken I freeze I froze I have frozen I speak I spoke I have spoken I drive I drove I have driven I ride I rode I have ridden I write I wrote I have written I fly I flew I have flown I know I knew I have known （我开始 / 我喝 / 我按铃 / 我下沉 / 我游泳 / 我打破 / 我冻结 / 我说 / 我驾驶 / 我骑 / 我写 / 我飞 / 我知道）

The following are verbs that you may also want to study. The verb dive is in fact regular: 下面是一些你可能也想学习的动词。动词 dive 实际上是规则的：

I dive I dived I have dived I dive I dived I have dived （我跳水 / 我跳水了 / 我已经跳水了）

But dove, as a past and past participle, has become so common that it is now widely accepted. 但 dove 作为过去式和过去分词，已经变得如此常见，以至于现在被广泛接受。

We might call the verb burst “super-regular.” It doesn’t change at all: 我们或许可以把动词 burst 称为"超规则"动词。它完全不发生变化：

Today I burst Yesterday I burst I have burst Today I burst Yesterday I burst I have burst （今天我爆裂 / 昨天我爆裂 / 我已经爆裂）

Other super-regular verbs include hit, set, and split. Shine is a peculiar case. Used as a transitive verb (which we’ll study soon), it’s regular: They have shined their trophies * every month. 其他"超规则"动词还包括 hit、set 和 split。Shine 是个特殊情形。用作及物动词（transitive verb，我们很快会学到）时，它是规则的：They have shined their trophies every month.*（他们每个月都擦拭奖杯。）

They shine They shined They have shined It shines It shone It had shone They shine They shined They have shined It shines It shone It had shone （他们擦亮 / 他们擦亮了 / 他们已经擦亮了） （它照耀 / 它照耀过 / 它曾照耀过）

As an intransitive verb (another term that’s coming up), it’s irregular: The sun has shone all day. 用作不及物动词（intransitive verb，另一个即将出现的术语）时，它是不规则的：The sun has shone all day.（太阳整日照耀。）

The verb hang is also peculiar, taking different forms depending on its meaning. Imagine you’re in a dusty little town in the Old West, and you ask a gnarled old-timer, “Whatever happened to that grammar teacher?” And the old-timer answers, 动词 hang 也很特殊，会根据其含义采用不同形式。想象你身处旧西部一个满是灰尘的小镇，问一位饱经风霜的老居民：“那个语法老师到底怎么了？“老居民回答道：

We’ve hanged that danged grammar teacher. He was all the time correctin’ us! We’ve hanged that danged grammar teacher. He was all the time correctin’ us! （我们已经绞死了那个该死的语法老师。他老是一直纠正我们！）

But if you’re proudly displaying your framed diploma on the wall, you could say, 但如果你正得意地在墙上展示镶框的文凭，你可以说：

I’ve finally hung my diploma. I’ve finally hung my diploma.（我终于把文凭挂起来了。）

There are six verbs (grouped in pairs below) that confuse us all at some point: 有六个动词（下面成对分组）会在某些时候把我们都弄糊涂：

I sit down. I lie down. I rise up. I set the books down. I lay the books down. I raise the books up. I sit down. I lie down. I rise up. （我坐下。/ 我躺下。/ 我起身。） I set the books down. I lay the books down. I raise the books up. （我把书放下。/ 我把书放下。/ 我把书举起。）

In the left column, the verbs indicate the way you are position- ing yourself. They are all irregular verbs. In the right column, the verbs indicate the way you are positioning the object (or anything else separate from yourself). They are all regular. 在左栏，动词表示你让自己就位的方式。它们全都是不规则动词。在右栏，动词表示你让物体（或任何与你分开的东西）就位的方式。它们全都是规则的。

It’s easy to keep these two sets of verbs straight: The verbs on the left all have the letter i as their first vowel. Remember that “the *i-*verbs indicate how I change my position.” 要区分这两组动词很容易：左栏的动词都以字母 i 作为第一个元音。记住”i-动词表示我如何改变自身的位置”。

Let’s take a look at the principal parts of these three pairs of verbs. Notice that the second verb in each pair is regular. You probably know these already: 我们来看看这三对动词的主要词形。注意每对中的第二个动词是规则的。你可能已经知道这些了：

present

past

past participle

现在式

过去式

过去分词

I sit I set I sat I set I have sat I have set I sit I set I sat I set I have sat I have set （左：sit 坐；右：set 放下）

You may also know these: 你可能也知道这些：

present

past

past participle

现在式

过去式

过去分词

I rise I raise I rose I raised I have risen I have raised I rise I raise I rose I raised I have risen I have raised （左：rise 起身；右：raise 举起）

Perhaps the most difficult of all irregular verbs are lie and lay: 或许所有不规则动词中最难的是 lie 和 lay：

present

past

past participle

现在式

过去式

过去分词

I lie (recline) I lay (set down) I lie (fib) I lay I laid I lied I have lain I have laid I have lied I lie (recline) I lay (set down) I lie (fib) I lay I laid I lied I have lain I have laid I have lied （lie 躺卧 / lay 放下 / lie 撒谎）（lay 躺下 / laid 放下 / lied 撒谎）（lain 已躺下 / laid 已放下 / lied 已撒谎）

As you see here, there are two verbs to lie. One means to recline, and one means to fib. Lie (to fib) is easy—it’s a regular verb. Lay (to set down) is also a regular verb. 如你所见，有两个动词都叫 to lie。一个意思是躺卧，一个意思是撒谎。Lie（撒谎）很简单——它是规则动词。Lay（放下）也是规则动词。

Lie (to recline) is irregular, and it confuses many people Lie（躺卧）是不规则的，它让许多人感到困惑，

because its past form, I lay, is identical to the present form of to lay (set down). 因为它的过去式 I lay 与 to lay（放下）的现在式完全相同。

To add to the confusion, in speech I lay down (the correct form) sounds exactly like *I laid down (the wrong form), so *we’re often making mistakes because we’re repeating the forms we hear—or think we hear. (The whole thing makes us want to lie down, no lie.) 更添混乱的是，在口语中 I lay down（正确形式）听起来与 I laid down（错误形式）完全一样，所以我们常常因为重复所听到的——或自认为听到的——形式而犯错。（整件事让我们想躺下来，不骗你。）

It is probably accurate to say that many English speakers, per- haps most of us, misuse lie sometimes, but you can master it in a few moments and remember it with a little review now and then. 大概可以说，许多说英语的人——或许是我们大多数人——有时都会误用 lie，但你可以在片刻间掌握它，并不时稍加复习来记住。

Even with irregular verbs, the past participle is always used with the auxiliary have (or its other forms has or had) to create perfect tenses (have lain). Forms of the verb be are always used with the -ing form (the present participle) to create progressive tenses. 即便是不规则动词，过去分词也总是与助动词 have（或其其他形式 has、had）连用，以构成完成时态（have lain）。动词 be 的形式总是与 -ing 形式（现在分词）连用，以构成进行时态。

EXERCISES

练习

**3a. **Write from memory the simple and perfect tenses of the verb call. 3a. 凭记忆写出动词 call 的简单时态和完成时态。

3b. Write from memory the simple progressive and perfect progressive tenses of the verb call. 3b. 凭记忆写出动词 call 的简单进行时态和完成进行时态。

**3c. **Write from memory the simple and perfect tenses of the verb know. 3c. 凭记忆写出动词 know 的简单时态和完成时态。

3d. Write from memory the simple progressive and perfect progressive tenses of the verb know. 3d. 凭记忆写出动词 know 的简单进行时态和完成进行时态。

3e. Complete these sentences using the correct verb and the correct principal part: 3e. 用正确的动词和正确的主要词形完成这些句子：

1. I will ___ here. (sit / set)
2. 我将在这里 ___。（sit / set / 坐 / 放下）
3. I will ___ my suitcase in the corner. (sit / set)
4. 我将把行李箱 ___ 在角落里。（sit / set / 坐 / 放下）
5. I will ___ my bag to the top shelf. (rise / raise)
6. 我将把包 ___ 到架子顶层。（rise / raise / 起身 / 举起）
7. I will ___ from my seat. (rise / raise)
8. 我将从座位上 ___。（rise / raise / 起身 / 举起）
9. I have ___ from my seat. (risen / raised)
10. 我已经从座位上 ___ 了。（risen / raised / 起身 / 举起）
11. I have ___ my bag. (risen / raised)
12. 我已经 ___ 我的包了。（risen / raised / 起身 / 举起）
13. I will ___ down. (lie / lay)
14. 我将 ___ 下。（lie / lay / 躺下 / 放下）
15. I will ___ my bag over here. (lie / lay)
16. 我将把包 ___ 在这里。（lie / lay / 躺下 / 放下）
17. I have ___ here for an hour. (lain / laid)
18. 我已经在这里 ___ 一个小时了。（lain / laid / 躺下 / 放下）
19. An hour ago, I ___ my bag there. (lain / laid)
20. 一个小时前，我把包 ___ 在那里了。（lain / laid / 躺下 / 放下）

3f. Complete the sentences using one or more auxiliary verbs: 3f. 用一个或多个助动词完成这些句子：

1. The perfect tenses use forms of the auxiliary verb ___.
2. 完成时态使用助动词 ___ 的形式。
3. The progressive tenses use forms of the auxiliary verb ___.
4. 进行时态使用助动词 ___ 的形式。
5. The perfect progressive tenses use forms of two auxiliary verbs: ___ and ___.
6. 完成进行时态使用两个助动词的形式：___ 和 ___。
7. All future tenses use the auxiliary ___.
8. 所有将来时态都使用助动词 ___。

3g. Identify the tense of the verb in each of the following sentences using one of these twelve terms: 3g. 用下列十二个术语之一，标出下列各句中动词的时态：

• Simple past, present, or future • Present perfect, past perfect, or future perfect • Present progressive, past progressive, or future progressive • Present perfect progressive, past perfect progressive, or future perfect progressive • Simple past, present, or future • 简单过去时、现在时或将来时 • Present perfect, past perfect, or future perfect • 现在完成时、过去完成时或将来完成时 • Present progressive, past progressive, or future progressive • 现在进行时、过去进行时或将来进行时 • Present perfect progressive, past perfect progressive, or future perfect progressive • 现在完成进行时、过去完成进行时或将来完成进行时

1. She was here yesterday.
2. She was here yesterday.（她昨天在这里。）
3. We have been waiting for you for an hour.
4. We have been waiting for you for an hour.（我们已经等你一个小时了。）
5. She broke her glasses.
6. She broke her glasses.（她打碎了眼镜。）
7. She has broken her glasses twice.
8. She has broken her glasses twice.（她已经两次打碎眼镜了。）
9. Yesterday’s news burst all our illusions.
10. Yesterday’s news burst all our illusions.（昨天的新闻打破了我们所有的幻想。）
11. I will speak to the principal.
12. I will speak to the principal.（我将与校长交谈。）
13. I will be speaking to the principal.
14. I will be speaking to the principal.（我将正在与校长交谈。）
15. We had spoken to the principal already.
16. We had spoken to the principal already.（我们之前已经与校长交谈过了。）
17. You will have been speaking to the principal by now.
18. You will have been speaking to the principal by now.（到此刻为止你将已经与校长交谈了一段时间。）
19. I have sung this song before.
20. I have sung this song before.（我以前唱过这首歌。）

3h. Complete the sentences using the names of principal parts of the verbs, or with the auxiliaries will, have, and be. 3h. 用动词主要词形的名称，或用助动词 will、have 和 be 完成这些句子。

1. The perfect tenses are constructed using the third principal part, called the ___.
2. 完成时态是用第三个主要词形构成的，称为 ___。
3. The progressive tenses are constructed using the fourth principal part, called the ___.
4. 进行时态是用第四个主要词形构成的，称为 ___。
5. All future tense verbs begin with the auxiliary ___.
6. 所有将来时态动词都以助动词 ___ 开头。
7. All perfect tenses are constructed using some form of the auxiliary ___.
8. 所有完成时态都是用助动词 ___ 的某种形式构成的。
9. All progressive tenses are constructed using some form of the auxiliary ___.
10. 所有进行时态都是用助动词 ___ 的某种形式构成的。
11. The tenses constructed using both the auxiliaries have and be are called the ___ tenses.
12. 用助动词 have 和 be 共同构成的时态称为 ___ 时态。

高大、黝黑，还有：形容词 修饰语与短语

As we saw in Chapter 1, nouns and verbs often have modifiers, words that describe the noun or the verb. 正如我们在第 1 章所见，名词和动词常常带有修饰语，即描述该名词或动词的词。

The following examples are not sentences but only parts of sentences. Here man is the noun; all the other words before and after man are modifiers that restrict the meaning of man in some way: 下面的例子不是句子，而只是句子的片段。这里 man 是名词；man 前后所有其他的词都是修饰语，以某种方式限定了 man 的含义：

The man The man in our neighborhood The irritable, unfriendly man in our neighborhood The man The man in our neighborhood The irritable, unfriendly man in our neighborhood （那个男人 / 我们社区里那个男人 / 我们社区里那个暴躁、不友好的男人）

As we’ve seen before, many modifiers appear immediately before the noun they modify: The, irritable, unfriendly. Some appear after: in our neighborhood. 正如我们之前所见，许多修饰语紧接在它们所修饰的名词之前：The、irritable、unfriendly。有些出现在之后：in our neighborhood。

This brings us to a common term that we use throughout these chapters: phrase. A phrase is a word or group of words used as a single grammatical unit. 这就引出了我们在这些章节中贯穿使用的一个常见术语：短语（phrase）。短语是作为一个单一语法单位使用的词或词组。

The three examples above are noun phrases. They contain the noun man and other words and phrases that modify man. 上面的三个例子都是名词短语（noun phrases）。它们包含名词 man 以及其他修饰 man 的词和短语。

Each of those noun phrases could be used as a single grammatical unit—for example, as the subject of a sentence. That is, the noun by itself would be the simple subject, and the noun and its modifiers would be the complete subject. 这些名词短语中的每一个都可以作为一个单一的语法单位使用——例如，作为句子的主语。也就是说，名词本身会是简单主语，而名词及其修饰语一起构成完整主语。

ADJECTIVES

形容词

Words like* irritable *and *unfriendly are adjectives. Adjectives * modify nouns and sometimes pronouns. They describe the noun or place limits on the word’s range of reference. In the following noun phrases, all the underlined words are adjectives: 像 irritable 和 unfriendly 这样的词是形容词（adjectives）。形容词修饰名词，有时也修饰代词（pronouns）。它们描述名词，或对词的指称范围加以限制。在下面的名词短语中，所有带下划线的词都是形容词：

The silvery moon The light brown hair Blue skies The silvery moon The light brown hair Blue skies （银色的月亮 / 浅棕色的头发 / 蓝天）

In most cases, adjectives simply describe nouns: tall, short, * ripe, rotten, round, perfect, clean, dirty, blank, full, empty, old, * new, ancient, medieval, modern, and thousands more. 在大多数情况下，形容词只是描述名词：tall、short、ripe、rotten、round、perfect、clean、dirty、blank、full、empty、old、new、ancient、medieval、modern，以及成千上万个其他词。

THE THREE ARTICLES

三个冠词

There are only three articles in English: a, an, and the. Articles are always used to modify nouns. Some grammar books treat articles as if they are a separate class of words, but in this book we’ll consider them a small, special subset of adjectives. 英语中只有三个冠词（articles）：a、an 和 the。冠词总是用来修饰名词。有些语法书把冠词当作一个独立的词类，但在本书中，我们将其视为形容词中一个小的特殊子集。

There is some confusion about when to use a and an. We use the article a before a word that begins with a consonant, and use an before a word that begins with a vowel, as in these phrases: 关于何时使用 a 和 an 存在些许混淆。我们在以辅音开头的词前用 a，在以元音开头的词前用 an，如下面的短语：

A child A cheese omelet An only child An omelet A child A cheese omelet An only child An omelet （a 一个孩子 / a 一份奶酪煎蛋卷）（an 独生子 / an 一份煎蛋卷）

But we’re sometimes puzzled when we see a and an used in phrases like these: 但当我们看到 a 和 an 用在如下短语中时，有时会感到困惑：

A union of concerned citizens An honor to work with you A union of concerned citizens An honor to work with you （a 一个有责任感的公民联盟 / an 与你共事的荣幸）

So let’s clarify the rules: Use a before a word beginning with a consonant sound (as in a union or a child): 所以我们来澄清规则：在以辅音音开头的词前用 a（如 a union 或 a child）：

A unicorn An uninvited guest A unicorn An uninvited guest （a 独角兽 / an 不速之客）

Use an before a word beginning with a vowel sound (as in *an * honor or an only child): 在以元音音开头的词前用 an（如 an honor 或 an only child）：

A man An honest man A man An honest man （a 一个男人 / an 一个诚实的男人）

The important consideration is the first sound (not the first letter) in the word following the article. This includes the first sound in abbreviations: An M.D., a U. S. territory. 关键的考虑因素是冠词后面那个词的第一个音（而非第一个字母）。这还包括缩写词的第一个音：An M.D.、a U. S. territory。

Finally, a and an are called the indefinite articles. The is the only definite article in English, indicating a specific object that we can distinguish from all other objects of the same kind: the last * straw. 最后，a 和 an 被称为不定冠词*（indefinite articles）。The 是英语中唯一的定冠词（definite article），表示我们能够与同类所有其他物体区分开的特定对象：the last straw（最后一根稻草）。

ADJECTIVES AND WORD ORDER

形容词与词序

In the noun phrases we’ve seen so far, the adjective appears before the noun. But adjectives can also appear immediately after the noun: 在我们目前见过的名词短语中，形容词出现在名词之前。但形容词也可以紧接在名词之后：

The old house, dark and foreboding The noisy fairground, bright and crowded A glorious sunset, gold and lavender The old house, dark and foreboding The noisy fairground, bright and crowded A glorious sunset, gold and lavender （那座古老的房子，阴暗而可怖 / 那个喧闹的游乐场，明亮而拥挤 / 一轮壮丽的日落，金黄而淡紫）

Articles are helpful in recognizing other adjectives. Consider this: 冠词有助于识别其他形容词。请看这个：

The smaller child learned the simplest tasks. The smaller child learned the simplest tasks.（那个较小的孩子学会了最简单的任务。）

When a word appears between an article and a noun, it’s an adjective or another word functioning as an adjective. 当一个词出现在冠词和名词之间时，它就是一个形容词，或另一个起形容词作用的词。

COMMON KINDS OF ADJECTIVES

常见形容词类别

There are certain groups of words that we can easily recognize as adjectives. Color words are often adjectives: a blue moon, green * apples. (Sometimes, in a different context, color words are nouns: * a dark blue, a vivid red.) 有一些词群我们可以轻易识别为形容词。颜色词常常是形容词：a blue moon、green apples。（有时，在不同的语境中，颜色词是名词：a dark blue、a vivid red。）

The green apples Red sails A blue moon The green apples Red sails A blue moon （绿色的苹果 / 红色的风帆 / 一轮蓝月）

The gold and lavender sunset Red, white, and blue bunting A yellow traffic light The gold and lavender sunset Red, white, and blue bunting A yellow traffic light （金黄与淡紫的日落 / 红、白、蓝的彩旗 / 黄色的交通灯）

There are other descriptive words: 还有其他描述性词语：

The new house Impulsive behavior A generous gift The new house Impulsive behavior A generous gift （新房子 / 冲动的行为 / 一份慷慨的礼物）

A sentimental old song Exciting new developments Soft music A sentimental old song Exciting new developments Soft music （一首感伤的老歌 / 令人振奋的新进展 / 轻柔的音乐）

There are adjectives that indicate number or quantity: 有些形容词表示数量：

Both friends A few corrections Many pages Both friends A few corrections Many pages （两位朋友 / 几处修改 / 许多页）

One sock Two shirts Three shoes One sock Two shirts Three shoes （一只袜子 / 两件衬衫 / 三只鞋）

Words that show possession are often used as adjectives: 表示所属关系的词常被用作形容词：

My mistake Your complaint His insight My mistake Your complaint His insight （我的错误 / 你的抱怨 / 他的洞见）

Bob and Ray’s routine Wayne’s help Elizabeth’s reign Bob and Ray’s routine Wayne’s help Elizabeth’s reign （鲍勃和雷的节目 / 韦恩的帮助 / 伊丽莎白的统治）

Some question words can be used as adjectives: 有些疑问词可以用作形容词：

Which room? What mess? Whose responsibility? Which room? What mess? Whose responsibility? （哪个房间？/ 什么乱子？/ 谁的责任？）

We’ll say it again: A good desk or online dictionary can help you identify adjectives and other words. 我们再说一遍：一本好的案头或在线词典可以帮助你识别形容词和其他词。

NOUNS AND VERBS USED ADJECTIVALLY

名词与动词作形容词用

Sometimes we build a noun phrase by using nouns or verbs to modify a noun: 有时我们用名词或动词来修饰名词，从而构成名词短语：

The street noise The traffic accident The squeaking wheel A frozen lake The street noise The traffic accident （街道的喧闹声 / 交通事故） The squeaking wheel A frozen lake （吱呀作响的轮子 / 一个冰封的湖）

In these cases, we say that the noun or verb is used adjectivally, and we’ll look at more cases of these in future chapters. 在这些情况下，我们说该名词或动词被用作形容词（adjectivally），我们将在后面的章节看到更多这样的例子。

COMPARISONS OF ADJECTIVES

形容词的比较

Some adjectives have three forms, which together make the comparison of the adjective: 有些形容词有三种形式，它们共同构成形容词的比较（comparison）：

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

原级

比较级

最高级

hot cold friendly famous suspicious athletic hotter colder friendlier more famous more suspicious more athletic hottest coldest friendliest most famous most suspicious most athletic hot cold friendly famous suspicious athletic hotter colder friendlier more famous more suspicious more athletic hottest coldest friendliest most famous most suspicious most athletic （热 / 冷 / 友好 / 著名 / 多疑 / 擅长运动）

In any comparison of adjectives like these, there is a positive form of the adjective that simply names a quality the noun has:* * hot, cold, friendly. 在任何像这样的形容词比较中，都有一个形容词的原级形式，只是说出该名词具有的某种性质：hot、cold、friendly。

We use the comparative when we’re comparing two—and only two—items, and we use the superlative when we’re comparing three or more: 当我们比较——且仅比较——两个事物时，用比较级；当我们比较三个或更多事物时，用最高级：

Susan is a fast runner. Susan is a faster runner than Alice. In fact, she’s the fastest runner of all. Susan is a fast runner. Susan is a faster runner than Alice. In fact, she’s the fastest runner of all. （苏珊是个跑得快的赛跑者。/ 苏珊是比爱丽丝跑得更快的赛跑者。/ 事实上，她是所有人中跑得最快的。）

As we see in these sentences, when we’re comparing one- syllable adjectives (and some two-syllable adjectives), we create the comparative and superlative forms by adding the suffixes –er and –est. See the examples for hot, cold, and friendly in the table of comparisons above. 正如我们在这些句子中所见，当我们比较单音节形容词（以及一些双音节形容词）时，通过加后缀 –er 和 –est 来构成比较级和最高级。参见上表中 hot、cold 和 friendly 的例子。

When we’re comparing adjectives of three or more syllables (and some two-syllable adjectives), we create the comparative and superlative forms by placing the modifiers more and most before the adjectives. See the examples for famous, suspicious, and athletic in the table above. 当我们比较三个或更多音节的形容词（以及一些双音节形容词）时，通过把修饰语 more 和 most 放在形容词之前来构成比较级和最高级。参见上表中 famous、suspicious 和 athletic 的例子。

When the comparison of an adjective is formed using the -er and -est suffices or the more and most adverbs, we refer to it as a regular adjective. 当形容词的比较通过 -er 和 -est 后缀，或 more 和 most 副词构成时，我们称其为规则形容词（regular adjective）。

Some two-syllable adjectives, like those below, can take either kind of comparison: 有些双音节形容词，如下面的，两种比较方式都可以采用：

happy, happier, happiest happy, more happy, most happy. often, oftener, oftenest often, more often, most often happy, happier, happiest happy, more happy, most happy. （happy 快乐 / happier 更快乐 / happiest 最快乐；happy 快乐 / more happy 更快乐 / most happy 最快乐。） often, oftener, oftenest often, more often, most often （often 经常 / oftener 更经常 / oftenest 最经常；often 经常 / more often 更经常 / most often 最经常）

Many careful writers seem to prefer happy, happier, happiest * and often, more often, most often*. When in doubt about a comparison, turn to the dictionary. And never use both kinds of comparison with the same word: 许多严谨的作者似乎更喜欢 happy、happier、happiest 和 often、more often、most often。当对某个比较拿不准时，请查阅词典。并且绝不要对同一个词同时使用两种比较方式：

WRONG: Ed is our most hardest working employee. WRONG: Ed is our most hardest working employee.（错误：埃德是我们最最勤奋的员工。）

Some adjectives that describe absolute qualities cannot be compared logically: We don’t usually say deader or deadest, or more pregnant or most pregnant, unless we’re kidding around. And it usually doesn’t make sense to say more full or most instant or most continuous. 有些描述绝对性质的形容词在逻辑上不能比较：我们通常不说 deader 或 deadest，也不说 more pregnant 或 most pregnant，除非是在开玩笑。而且说 more full、most instant 或 most continuous 通常也没有意义。

But sometimes we ignore logic, especially in everyday conver- sation. Unique (meaning “one of a kind”) is a well-known example. Logically, something is either unique or it isn’t, but people will still say things like this: 但有时我们不顾逻辑，尤其在日常对话中。Unique（意为"独一无二的"）就是一个众所周知的例子。从逻辑上讲，某物要么独一无二，要么不是，但人们仍然会说这样的话：

That tire swing in their living room is a very unique feature. That tire swing in their living room is a very unique feature.（他们客厅里那个轮胎秋千是一个非常独特的特征。）

They mean that it’s an unusual feature. But in everyday con- versation (as opposed to professional writing), it seldom matters if you say very unique or most unique. 他们的意思是那是一个不寻常的特征。但在日常对话中（与专业写作相对），你说 very unique 还是 most unique 很少有关系。

Every now and then a careful writer will ignore all of these arguments and compare an absolute quality, and it works. The opening words of the Preamble of the United States Constitution are one such example: 偶尔，一位严谨的作者会不顾所有这些论点去比较一个绝对性质，结果也行得通。美国宪法序言的开篇文字就是这样一个例子：

We, the People of the United States, in Order to form a more * perfect Union . . . . We, the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union . . . .（我们合众国人民，为建立更趋完善*的联邦而……）

No one we know of has ever objected. 据我们所知，从未有人提出过异议。

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者的要点

1. Know the irregular adjectives.

1. 认识不规则形容词。

A few adjectives have comparisons that are like clothes you see marked down in the stores: They’re irregular adjectives— they don’t follow the usual patterns. They are some of the most commonly used adjectives, so you probably know most of them already: 少数形容词的比较方式，就像你在商店里看到的打折衣服：它们是不规则形容词（irregular adjectives）——它们不遵循通常的模式。它们是最常用的形容词中的一些，所以你可能已经知道其中大部分了：

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

原级

比较级

最高级

bad good little much (or many) worse better less more worst best least most bad good little much (or many) worse better less more worst best least most （bad 坏 / good 好 / little 少 / much 多；worse 更坏 / better 更好 / less 更少 / more 更多；worst 最坏 / best 最好 / least 最少 / most 最多）

2. Use superlatives correctly.

2. 正确使用最高级。

Consider this sentence: 请看这个句子：

I’ve heard Barbra and Taylor sing. Barbra is the best singer. I’ve heard Barbra and Taylor sing. Barbra is the best singer.（我听过芭芭拉和泰勒唱歌。芭布拉是唱得最好的歌手。）

By the strictest rules of usage, we should write *Barbra is the * better singer, because we’re only comparing two singers. Using the superlative form in a comparison of two is common in casual conversation, but we should try to avoid it in careful writing unless we’re deliberately developing an informal style. 按照最严格的用法规则，我们应该写 Barbra is the better singer，因为我们只比较两个歌手。在两个事物的比较中使用最高级形式，在随意对话中很常见，但在严谨写作中我们应当尽量避免，除非我们刻意采用一种非正式的风格。

3. Use hyphens in certain kinds of phrases.

3. 在某些短语中使用连字符。

When we use an entire phrase as an adjective, we typically hyphenate it: 当我们把一个完整短语用作形容词时，通常会用连字符连接：

The four-year-old girl A by-the-numbers process The broken-down car The short-term solution The four-year-old girl A by-the-numbers process The broken-down car The short-term solution （四岁的女孩 / 一个照章办事的过程 / 那辆坏掉的车 / 短期的解决方案）

Some cases are a bit more complex. Consider this noun phrase: 有些情况稍微复杂些。请看这个名词短语：

Nineteenth-century and twentieth-century American literature Nineteenth-century and twentieth-century American literature（十九世纪和二十世纪的美国文学）

We can remove one word and say the same thing: 我们可以去掉一个词，意思不变：

Nineteenth- and twentieth-century American literature Nineteenth- and twentieth-century American literature（十九及二十世纪的美国文学）

Notice the hanging hyphen after nineteenth. It enables nineteenth and twentieth to share the second element century. Here’s another example: 注意 nineteenth 后面的悬空连字符。它让 nineteenth 和 twentieth 共享第二个成分 century。再看一个例子：

Short- and long-term solutions. Short- and long-term solutions.（短期与长期的解决方案。）

All the uses of hyphens shown here reflect formal usage. Increasingly, the hyphen is omitted in cases like these in less formal published prose. 这里展示的所有连字符用法都体现正式用法。在不太正式的出版散文中，这类情况下连字符越来越常被省略。

EXERCISES

练习

4a. Name the three articles. 4a. 说出三个冠词。

4b. Identify the adjectives (including articles) in these sentences and underline them: 4b. 标出下列句子中的形容词（包括冠词），并给它们加下划线：

1. The new teacher is waiting in the outer office.
2. The new teacher is waiting in the outer office.（那位新老师在门外办公室等着。）
3. A rainy day could ruin the entire event.
4. A rainy day could ruin the entire event.（一个雨天可能毁掉整个活动。）
5. Count Dracula is the tall, pale man in the shadows.
6. Count Dracula is the tall, pale man in the shadows.（德古拉伯爵是阴影中那个高大、苍白的男人。）
7. A backyard garden is a wonderful thing.
8. A backyard garden is a wonderful thing.（一个后院花园是件美妙的事。）
9. She wore a red and white dress to the casual party.
10. She wore a red and white dress to the casual party.（她穿了一件红白相间的连衣裙去参加那场随意的聚会。）
11. I gave my little brother good advice.
12. I gave my little brother good advice.（我给了弟弟好建议。）
13. She has been a better student this year because of her hard work.
14. She has been a better student this year because of her hard work.（因为她的努力，今年她一直是个更好的学生。）
15. Bob’s idea is the worst idea I’ve heard in a long time.
16. Bob’s idea is the worst idea I’ve heard in a long time.（鲍勃的主意是我长久以来听过的最糟的主意。）
17. The point-by-point refutation was a difficult argument to follow.
18. The point-by-point refutation was a difficult argument to follow.（那逐点反驳是一个难以跟上的论证。）
19. Two roads lead to his farm.
20. Two roads lead to his farm.（两条路通向他的农场。）
21. Which roads are those?
22. Which roads are those?（那些是哪几条路？）

4c. Give the comparative and superlative forms of these adjectives; use a dictionary when you need it. In some cases, there may be no comparative or superlative forms. 4c. 给出下列形容词的比较级和最高级形式；需要时请使用词典。有些情况下可能没有比较级或最高级形式。

1. Small
2. 小（small）
3. Fast
4. 快（fast）
5. Bright
6. 明亮（bright）
7. Good
8. 好（good）
9. Bad
10. 坏（bad）
11. Curious
12. 好奇（curious）
13. Cheerful
14. 快乐（cheerful）
15. Happy
16. 快乐（happy）
17. Wrong
18. 错误（wrong）
19. Far (meaning anything except geographical distance)
20. 远（far，指地理距离以外的任何含义）

不可避免地，副词

Adverbs are another important kind of modifier. Here’s a definition that we’ll refer to time and again: 副词是另一种重要的修饰语。下面这个定义我们会一再用到：

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 副词是修饰动词、形容词和其他副词的词。

When adverbs modify verbs, they indicate when, where, why, * or how the action was performed. 当副词修饰动词时，它们表示动作发生何时、何地、为何、或如何*。

Let’s begin with the simple sentence He ran. Ran is a verb and the complete predicate in this sentence, and we can expand the predicate by adding any possible adverb: 让我们从简单句 He ran.（他跑了。）开始。Ran（跑）是本句的动词和完整谓语，我们可以通过添加任何可能的副词来扩展谓语：

He ran quickly. 他跑得快。

Instead of quickly, we could use *slowly, clumsily, gracefully, * *erratically, fast, then, later, *and many others. 除了 quickly（快地），我们还可以用 slowly, clumsily, gracefully,（慢地、笨拙地、优雅地、）erratically, fast, then, later,（不稳地、快地、然后、后来、）以及许多其他词。

All the adverbs we can add to He ran answer this question: “When, where, why, or how did he run?” Common adverbs that modify verbs include *soon, later, now, then, before, after, here, * there, forward, backward, badly, well, far, also, not, too, and many more. 我们能加到 He ran（他跑了）上的所有副词都回答这个问题：“他跑的何时、何地、为何或如何？”修饰动词的常见副词包括 soon, later, now, then, before, after, here,（很快、后来、现在、那时、之前、之后、这里、）there, forward, backward, badly, well, far, also, not（那里、向前、向后、糟糕地、好、远、也、不、）too（也），以及更多。

Remember the point we saw in Chapter 3: When a word appears between an auxiliary verb and the main verb, it’s an adverb that modifies the main verb: 请记住我们在第 3 章看到的一点：当一个词出现在助动词和主动词之间时，它是修饰主动词的副词：

He had finally stopped the noise. 他终于停止了噪音。

Remember, too, that all the adverbs we add to a sentence to modify the verb are part of the complete predicate. 还要记住，我们为修饰动词而加到句子中的所有副词，都是完整谓语的一部分。

When adverbs modify adjectives, they appear before the adjective* and modify the quality expressed by the adjective: 当副词修饰形容词时，它们出现在形容词之前并修饰形容词所表达的*性质：

The bright red car sped away. 那辆鲜红色的汽车疾驰而去。

We use (and overuse) several adverbs to modify adverbs, particularly very. We could write quite, extremely, somewhat, or * rather. Here, the adverb helps to describe the color of the red car. 我们（并且过度）使用几个副词来修饰副词，尤其是 very（非常）。我们可以写 quite, extremely, somewhat,（相当、极度、有点、）或 rather*（颇）。这里，副词有助于描述红色汽车的颜色。

When adverbs modify other adverbs, adverbs modify the quality expressed by the other adverb: 当副词修饰其他副词时，副词修饰另一个副词所表达的性质：

Mr. Morton ran quite quickly. 莫顿先生跑得相当快。

Instead of quite, we could write *somewhat, very, a bit, rather, * more, or less. Here, adverbs answer the question, “How quickly did Mr. Morton run?” 除了 quite（相当），我们可以写 somewhat, very, a bit, rather,（有点、非常、一点儿、颇、）more,（更）或 less.（较少。）这里，副词回答的问题是：“莫顿先生跑得有多快？”

Notice that, when adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs, they nearly always appear just before the word they modify. 注意，当副词修饰形容词或其他副词时，它们几乎总是恰好出现在所修饰词的前面。

Clearly adverbs are a diverse class of words; they have a great many uses and forms. 显然，副词是一个多样化的词类；它们有极多的用法和形式。

COMPARISONS OF ADVERBS

副词的比较

Some adverbs, like many adjectives, have three forms, which together make the comparison of the adverb: 有些副词，像许多形容词一样，有三种形式，它们共同构成副词的比较（comparison）：

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

原级

比较级

最高级

close fast early warmly generously suspiciously closer faster earlier more warmly more generously more suspiciously closest fastest earliest most warmly most generously most suspiciously （近 / 快 / 早 / 温暖地 / 慷慨地 / 怀疑地；更近 / 更快 / 更早 / 更温暖地 / 更慷慨地 / 更怀疑地；最近 / 最快 / 最早 / 最温暖地 / 最慷慨地 / 最怀疑地）

Here again, we use the positive when we’re describing the action or quality of one thing, we use the comparative when we’re comparing two (and only two), and we use the superlative when we’re comparing three or more. 同样地，当我们描述一个事物的动作或性质时用原级；当我们比较——且仅比较——两个事物时用比较级；当我们比较三个或更多事物时用最高级。

A relatively small number of adverbs form comparisons with the -er and -est suffixes: 数量相对较少的副词用 -er 和 -est 后缀构成比较级和最高级：

Susan runs fast. Susan runs faster than Alice. In fact, she runs fastest of all. 苏珊跑得快。苏珊比爱丽丝跑得快。事实上，她是所有之中跑得最快的。

The examples above show that some adverbs (like fast) resemble adjectives with little or no difference in spelling or pronunciation, but with a clear difference in their use. This is obvious if we compare the three sentences above about Susan with the similar sentences we saw in Chapter 4: 上面的例子表明，有些副词（如 fast）与形容词在拼写或发音上几乎或完全没有差别，但用法上有明显区别。如果我们把上面关于苏珊的三个句子与第 4 章中看到的类似句子比较，这一点就很明显：

Susan is a fast runner. Susan is a faster runner than Alice. In fact, she’s the fastest runner of all. 苏珊是个跑得快的赛跑者。苏珊是比爱丽丝跑得更快的赛跑者。事实上，她是所有人中跑得最快的赛跑者。

With fast (and some words like it), we can distinguish the adverb fast from the adjective fast only by the context. When we use a word like fast to modify a verb, grammarians say that we use it adverbially. 对于 fast（以及一些类似的词），我们只能通过语境来区分副词 fast 和形容词 fast。当我们用像 fast 这样的词来修饰动词时，语法学家说我们是在作副词用（adverbially）。

Most of the adverbs that end with -ly use the more and most comparisons. Dictionaries can always help you find the right forms. 大多数以 -ly 结尾的副词使用 more 和 most 的比较形式。词典总能帮你找到正确的形式。

THOSE MOST IRREGULAR COMPARISONS

那些最不规则的比较

There are also irregular adverbs that don’t follow the usual patterns. They are some of the most commonly used adverbs, so you know most of them already: 也有一些不规则副词不遵循通常的模式。它们是最常用的副词中的一些，所以你多半已经知道其中大部分：

Positive Comparative Superlative badly well little much (or many) far worse better less more farther further worst best least most farthest furthest （原级 / 比较级 / 最高级）badly 糟糕地 / well 好地 / little 少 / much（或 many）多 / far 远；worse 更糟 / better 更好 / less 更少 / more 更多 / farther 更远 / further 更远；worst 最糟 / best 最好 / least 最少 / most 最多 / farthest 最远 / furthest 最远

Far requires some attention. In prescriptive grammar, *far, * farther, and farthest are supposed to be used to describe physical distance: Far（远）需要一些注意。在规范语法中，far、farther 和 farthest 应当用于描述物理距离：

He ran farther than I did. 他比我跑得远。

Far, further, and furthest are to be used in every other kind of situation: Far、further 和 furthest 用于所有其他类型的情形：

He went further in school than I did. 他在学业上比我走得更远。

It’s no surprise that some writers find this distinction unnecessary, especially because most Americans aren’t even aware of it. These writers argue that the adverb is always clear no matter which form is used, so we need to settle on one set of comparisons and use it in most or all situations. 有些作者认为这种区分没有必要，这并不奇怪，尤其是因为大多数美国人甚至都没有意识到它。这些作者认为，无论使用哪种形式，这个副词的意思总是清楚的，所以我们需要选定一组比较形式，并在大多数或所有情形中使用它。

But there is no clear consensus on how to simplify the far comparison. (That word is far too troublesome.) In your professional writing, an editor or supervisor may expect you to do it the prescriptive way. 但关于如何简化 far 的比较，并没有明确的共识。（那个词 far 太麻烦了。）在你的专业写作中，编辑或主管可能期望你按规范语法的做法来做。

NOUNS USED ADVERBIALLY

名词作副词用

Used correctly, other words can modify verbs—particularly nouns that specify where, *how, *or when the action occurred: 使用得当的话，其他词也能修饰动词——尤其是那些指明动作发生何地、如何、或何时的名词：

We walked home. We walked single file. 我们走回家。我们排成一列走。

This may seem odd, but it will be clearer when we discuss form, function, and parts of speech in Chapter 16. 这看起来可能有些奇怪，但当我们第 16 章讨论形式、功能和词类时会更清楚。

Nouns regarding time are commonly used adverbially: 表示时间的名词常被用作副词（adverbially）：

They celebrated her birthday yesterday. Tomorrow we go on vacation. Monday we return from vacation. They worked in the yard Saturday. 他们昨天庆祝了她的生日。明天我们去度假。星期一我们从度假回来。他们星期六在院子里干活。

Nouns can also function adverbially to modify adjectives. In these sentences, the modified adjective is in bold: 名词也可以起副词作用来修饰形容词。在这些句子中，被修饰的形容词用粗体标出：

My son is now four feet tall. My daughter is two inches taller. They worked all day long. 我儿子现在四英尺高。我女儿高出两英寸。他们整天都在工作。

Finally, adverbial nouns can modify other adverbs. In these sentences, the modified adverbs are in bold: 最后，作副词用的名词可以修饰其他副词。在这些句子中，被修饰的副词用粗体标出：

I wish we had left a day later. We can go ten miles farther. 我真希望我们晚一天出发。我们可以再走十英里。

CURIOUS ADVERBS: WHEN, WHERE, WHY,

AND HOW

奇妙的副词：何时、何地、为何、

以及如何

When, where, why, and how are four of the most important adverbs in our language. They are the interrogative adverbs, the ones we use to ask questions. We usually place them at or near the beginning of a question: When, where, why,（何时、何地、为何、）和 how（如何）是我们语言中最重要的一些副词。它们是疑问副词（interrogative adverbs），即我们用来提问的副词。我们通常把它们放在问题的开头或靠近开头的位置：

Where are you going? When will you be back? 你要去哪里？你什么时候回来？

There are of course other useful question words, like who or what, but those are interrogative pronouns, which we’ll learn about in Chapter 19. 当然还有其他有用的疑问词，比如 who 或 what，但那些是疑问代词（interrogative pronouns），我们将在第 19 章学习。

In this chapter, we’ve learned that nouns can be used adver- bially, and the interrogative adverbs return the favor. Sometimes they are used as nouns: 在本章中，我们学到名词可以用作副词，而疑问副词也投桃报李。有时它们被用作名词：

I know I’m supposed to be someplace today, but I can’t remember where or when. 我知道今天我该在某个地方，但我记不起是哪里或何时了。

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者的要点

1. Place adverbs correctly.

1. 正确放置副词。

Adverbs that modify verbs are often moveable; they can be placed in several places in the sentence without changing the meaning: 修饰动词的副词通常可以移动；它们可以放在句子中的几个位置而不改变意思：

Quickly Phil called the police. Phil quickly called the police. Phil called the police quickly. 飞快地，菲尔报了警。菲尔飞快地报了警。菲尔报了警，飞快地。

Quietly the children hurried home. The children quietly hurried home. The children hurried home quietly. 安静地，孩子们赶回家。孩子们安静地赶回家。孩子们安静地赶回家。

Then he ran. He then ran. He ran then. 然后他跑了。他然后跑了。他跑了，然后。

The three underlined adverbs obviously work in several places in the sentence. Moving them doesn’t alter the meaning, although it may alter the rhythm or emphasis in the sentence. But moving some words, like only or however, can change the meaning: 三个带下划线的副词显然在句子中的几个位置都行得通。移动它们不会改变意思，尽管它可能改变句子的节奏或强调。但移动某些词，比如 only（只）或 however（然而），会改变意思：

Only Mr. Morton broke the vase. [Mr. Morton broke it all by himself.] 只有莫顿先生打碎了花瓶。[莫顿先生是完全独自打碎的。]

Mr. Morton only broke the vase. [He didn’t do anything else to it.] 莫顿先生只打碎了花瓶。[他没有对它做别的事。]

Mr. Morton broke only the vase. [He didn’t break anything else—yet.] 莫顿先生只打碎了花瓶。[他还没打碎别的东西——到目前为止。]

As we move only, the new contexts change its meaning in the sentences above. (In the first sentence, only is an adjective.) 随着我们移动 only（只），新的语境改变了它在上面句子中的意思。（在第一句中，only 是形容词。）

2. Distinguish good and well.

2. 区分 good 与 well。

Writing for publication or for other professional reasons, you must observe the distinction between good and well: 为出版或其他专业原因写作时，你必须注意 good 和 well 之间的区别：

He is a good writer. He writes well. [Never write *He writes *good.] 他是个好作家。他写得好。[绝不要写 *He writes good。]

Good is an adjective. Well is sometimes an adverb and some- times an adjective, depending on context. It can be an adjective meaning healthy, in sentences like this: Good 是形容词。Well 有时是副词，有时是形容词，视语境而定。它可以作形容词，意为健康，如下面的句子：

Finally my son is* well. 终于，我儿子健康了。

It’s hard to use well well. Probably everyone has confused good and well in casual conversation at one time or another, and there it seldom matters. But readers and editors will assume that you’re a careless writer if you confuse the two in your professional work. 要把 well 用得好并不容易。大概每个人都在随意对话中某个时候混淆过 good 和 well，而在那种场合很少有关系。但读者和编辑会认为，如果你在专业作品中混淆二者，你就是个粗心的作者。

EXERCISES

练习

These exercises refer to matters you’ve read about in the last two chapters. Don’t hesitate to turn back to Chapter 4 if you need to review. 这些练习涉及你在过去两章中读到的内容。如果需要复习，尽管翻回第 4 章。

5a. In the following sentences, mark the underlined words to classify them as adjectives (ADJ) or adverbs (ADV). Count the articles a, an, and the as adjectives. The adverbs here modify verbs only. Here are examples to help: 5a. 在下列句子中，标出带下划线的词，将它们归类为形容词（ADJ）或副词（ADV）。把冠词 a、an 和 the 算作形容词。这里的副词只修饰动词。以下是一些示例供参考：

ADJ ADJ This is a pleasant day. ADJ ADJ 这是愉快的一天。

ADJ ADJ ADV The small child runs quickly. ADJ ADJ ADV 那个小孩跑得快。

ADJ ADJ ADV The other child runs faster. ADJ ADJ ADV 另一个孩子跑得更快。

1. The smaller child learned the simplest tasks.

2. 那个较小的孩子学会了最简单的任务。

3. The child learns eagerly.

4. 那孩子学得很急切。

5. John almost had an answer to the difficult question.

6. 约翰几乎有了那个困难问题的答案。

7. Father always encourages realistic thinking.

8. 父亲总是鼓励务实的思考。

9. The furious family did not wait to see the busy manager.

10. 那愤怒的一家人没有等见那位忙碌的经理。

11. A thick, wet snow fell softly.

12. 一场厚厚、潮湿的雪轻轻落下。

13. Silently, a strange man in a black cape stood in the shadows.

14. 寂静中，一个披着黑斗篷的怪人站在阴影里。

5b. Write the comparative and superlative forms of these adverbs; use a dictionary when you need to. 5b. 写出下列副词的比较级和最高级形式；需要时请使用词典。

1. Fast

2. 快（fast）

3. Quickly

4. 快地（quickly）

5. Slowly

6. 慢地（slowly）

7. Angrily

8. 愤怒地（angrily）

9. Carefully

10. 小心地（carefully）

11. Well

12. 好地（well）

13. Badly

14. 糟糕地（badly）

15. Early

16. 早（early）

17. Far (referring to geographical distance)

18. 远（far，指地理距离）

19. Often

20. 经常（often）

**5c. **In these sentences, classify the underlined adverbs: Do they modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs? 5c. 在这些句子中，标出带下划线的副词：它们修饰动词、形容词，还是其他副词？

1. Your mistake was a very small one.

2. 你的错误是一个很小的错误。

3. He does well when he tries hard.

4. 他努力尝试时做得好。

5. He does quite well when he tries.

6. 他尝试时做得相当好。

7. The secretary’s notes are evidently missing.

8. 秘书的笔记明显不见了。

9. Now we finally have the notes.

10. 现在我们终于有了笔记。

11. We took notes rather rapidly, but we could not keep up.

12. 我们记笔记相当快，但跟不上。

13. We still need good notes.

14. 我们仍然需要好的笔记。

**5d. **Correct the errors in the underlined adjectives and adverbs, which may include suffixes or, in some cases, the placement of the word. Some are correct. 5d. 改正带下划线的形容词和副词中的错误，可能包括后缀，或在有些情况下是词的位置。有些是正确的。

1. Esther and Ryan play good, but Esther plays best.

2. 埃斯特和瑞安打得好，但埃斯特打得最好。

3. By sunset we will have hiked ten miles or further.

4. 到日落时我们将已徒步十英里或更远。

5. The library has the most complete book on baseball.

6. 图书馆有最完整的棒球书。

7. Bob was the student only left behind. [Here the writer is

8. 鲍勃是唯一被落下的学生。[作者想说的是 trying to say that no one else was left behind.] 没有别人被落下。]

9. Final we reached the motel.

10. 最终我们到达了汽车旅馆。

11. Be real careful on this highway.

12. 在这条公路上要真小心。

13. We saw that Bart looked sadly.

14. 我们看到巴特看上去很伤心。

15. Bart was looking sad at his wrecked car.

16. 巴特正伤心地看着他撞坏的车。

17. Bart was feeling sadly on his way home.

18. 巴特在回家路上感到很伤心。

19. In the lab, we measured the results as precise as we could.

20. 在实验室里，我们尽可能精确地测量结果。

介词之中

Prepositions are short, simple, and remarkably useful words. We use prepositions to create modifying phrases called prepositional ** phrases. 介词是简短、朴素又极其有用的词。我们用介词来创造称为介词短语**（prepositional phrases）的修饰性短语。

With prepositions we can connect a noun phrase—called the** ** object of the preposition—to another word in a sentence. The preposition and its object together make the prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase usually modifies a noun or verb, but it can also modify an adjective or adverb. 借助介词（prepositions），我们可以把一个名词短语——称为介词的宾语（object of the preposition）——连接到句子中的另一个词。介词及其宾语共同构成介词短语。介词短语通常修饰名词或动词，但也可以修饰形容词或副词。

Here are some examples of prepositional phrases. The prepo- sitions are underlined, and the remaining words are the objects of the prepositions (with modifiers, in some cases): 以下是一些介词短语的例子。介词加了下划线，其余的词是介词的宾语（有些情况下带修饰语）：

among the debris on the roof in the room to our house for your birthday beside our house from the roof by the room after dinner with her （在废墟中 / 在屋顶上 / 在房间里 / 到我们家 / 为你的生日；在我们房子旁边 / 从屋顶 / 在房间旁 / 晚饭后 / 和她一起）

As you see, prepositions usually precede their objects—that is, they are pre-positioned before the objects. 如你所见，介词通常位于（precede）其宾语之前——也就是说，它们被前置（pre-positioned）在宾语前面。

In English, there are hundreds of thousands of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, but there are relatively few prepositions— perhaps one hundred or so. The list below contains most of the frequently used prepositions. 在英语中，有成千上万个名词、动词、形容词和副词，但介词相对较少——大约一百个左右。下面的列表包含了大多数常用的介词。

If you read over the following list (about seventy) now and then, and refer to it when you need to, it will be easier for you to recognize prepositional phrases. And dictionaries can always help you recognize them: 如果你不时浏览下面的列表（约七十个），并在需要时查阅它，你就能更容易地识别介词短语。而词典总能帮你识别它们：

aboard about above across after against along alongside amid amidst among amongst around as astride at atop before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond but (meaning except) by despite down during except for from in into like near of off on onto out outside over past save than since through throughout till to toward towards under underneath unlike until up upon with within without worth （以上为常用英语介词列表。）

We’ll look at more prepositions shortly. The most important characteristic of a preposition is that it’s usually followed by its object. You have to be careful about classifying a word as a preposition, because many of them act as other kinds of words—especially as adverbs. Some can also be special kinds of words that we’ll study later, such as participles or as particles in phrasal verbs. A dictionary can help you make the distinction. 我们稍后会看到更多介词。介词最重要的特征是它后面通常跟着它的宾语。你在把某个词归类为介词时必须小心，因为它们中许多会充当其他类型的词——尤其是副词。有些还可以是我们将在后面学习的特殊词类，比如分词（participles），或短语动词（phrasal verbs）中的小品词（particles）。词典可以帮你区分。

MORE EXAMPLES

更多例子

Prepositional phrases serve a remarkable variety of purposes. Here are a few of their common uses, with prepositional phrases in the right-hand columns in the examples below. 介词短语有着丰富多样的用途。以下是它们几种常见用法，介词短语在下面例子的右栏中。

Prepositional phrases often indicate relative spatial positions, as in these examples modifying nouns (i.e., they’re all adjectival phrases): 介词短语常常表示相对空间位置，如下面这些修饰名词的例子（即它们全都是形容词性短语）：

the alley the shingles the shingle the plate the shoe the picture behind [or beside] our house, on our block on top of our house on the roof in the cupboard, by itself under [or by] the sofa, without the other above the sofa, of Dorian Gray （小巷 / 木瓦 / 招牌 / 盘子 / 鞋 / 图画；在我们房子后面[或旁边]、在我们的街区、在房子顶上、在屋顶上、在碗柜里、独自、在沙发下面[或旁边]、没有另一个、在沙发上方、多里安·格雷的）

Prepositional phrases often indicate relative direction of * movement, as in these adverbial examples: 介词短语常常表示相对运动方向*，如下面这些副词性例子：

driving going going going leaving throwing by your house, down the street to your house, up the street into [or in] your house through [or around] your house from your house at your house （开车 / 去 / 去 / 去 / 离开 / 扔；经过你家、沿街向下到你家、沿街向上、进入[或在]你家、穿过[或绕]你家、从你家、在你家）

(Well, that relationship went downhill in a hurry.) （嗯，那种关系很快就恶化了。）

Prepositional phrases can also indicate time relationships, as in these adverbial examples: 介词短语还可以表示时间关系，如下面这些副词性例子：

We’ll meet We’ll meet We’ll meet We’ll meet We’ll meet We’ll meet after the film. at 8 pm. during the meeting. before dinner. for twenty minutes. until 8 pm. （我们会见面 / 我们会见面 / 我们会见面 / 我们会见面 / 我们会见面 / 我们会见面；电影之后。晚上8点。会议期间。晚饭前。二十分钟。直到晚上8点。）

And some prepositional phrases are just creepy: 而有些介词短语只是令人毛骨悚然：

The old house The motel The woman at the top of the hill in the middle of nowhere in the shower （老房子 / 汽车旅馆 / 女人；在山顶上 / 在荒无人烟的地方 / 在淋浴间）

ADJECTIVAL OR ADVERBIAL?

形容词性还是副词性？

As we’ve just seen, prepositional phrases are used as adjectives or adverbs—that is, they’re used adjectivally** or **adverbially. Adjec- tival prepositional phrases usually follow the nouns they modify. The following sentences contain adjectival prepositional phrases, and we’ve underlined the entire phrase: 正如我们刚才所见，介词短语被用作形容词或副词——也就是说，它们是作形容词用（adjectivally）或作副词用（adverbially）。形容词性介词短语通常跟随它们所修饰的名词。下面的句子包含形容词性介词短语，我们已经给整个短语加了下划线：

The dog in the yard barked loudly. I read the first of three volumes. This is my letter to the principal. 院子里的狗大声叫着。我读了三卷本中的第一卷。这是我给校长的信。

In each of the sentences above, the prepositional phrase modifies the noun it follows. 在上面每个句子中，介词短语都修饰它后面的名词。

In the sentences below, the adverbial prepositional phrases are underlined: 在下面的句子中，副词性介词短语加了下划线：

I arrived at noon. I drove into the garage. I walked for exercise. I walked at a fast pace. 我中午到达。我把车开进车库。我为了锻炼而走路。我以很快的步伐走路。

As adverbs, these prepositional phrases tell us when, where, * why, or how the action of the verb was performed. 作为副词，这些介词短语告诉我们动词的动作是何时、何地、为何或如何*发生的。

We learned earlier that adverbs modifying verbs are often movable. In the sentences below, we see that some of the underlined adverbial prepositional phrases are also movable. Typically, the moveable phrases indicate time, place, or manner: 我们早先学过，修饰动词的副词通常可以移动。在下面的句子中，我们看到一些带下划线的副词性介词短语也是可以移动的。通常，可移动的短语表示时间、地点或方式：

The dog barked loudly in the yard. In the yard, the dog barked loudly. 狗在院子里大声叫。在院子里，狗大声叫。

Little Ruthie practiced the violin for two hours. For two hours, little Ruthie practiced the violin. 小露西练习了小提琴两小时。两小时里，小露西练习了小提琴。

Mr. Lochenhocher would rather listen to the dog. 洛亨霍克先生宁愿听狗叫。

I’ve heard Ruthie play, and I’m with Lochenhocher. 我听过露西演奏，我站在洛亨霍克一边。

We can’t move the adverbial prepositional phrases in the last two sentences. 我们不能移动最后两句话中的副词性介词短语。

Sometimes the guidelines for distinguishing adverbial and adjectival phrases don’t work as well as we’d like. Here’s another example: 有时，区分副词性和形容词性短语的准则并不如我们所愿那样好用。这里是另一个例子：

We drove the car into the garage. 我们把车开进了车库。

Into the garage follows car, but the phrase obviously doesn’t modify car. Here the prepositional phrase is adverbial; it answers the question, “Where did you drive the car?” But this adverbial phrase is not moveable. We probably wouldn’t write Into the garage 跟在 car 后面，但这个短语显然不修饰 car。这里的介词短语是副词性的；它回答的问题是：“你把车开到了哪里？”但这个副词性短语不能移动。我们大概不会写

Into the garage, we drove the car. 在车库里，我们把车开了进去。

When we’re trying to identify the function of the prepositional phrase, the most important point to consider is the meaning of the phrase. Does it reasonably apply to a noun or an action? What does it describe? 当我们试图识别介词短语的功能时，要考虑的最重要一点是这个短语的意思。它合理地适用于一个名词还是一个动作？它描述的是什么？

In other words, sometimes prepositional phrases—and other structures—are grammatically ambiguous. Consider this: 换句话说，有时介词短语——以及其他结构——在语法上是歧义的。请看这个：

Steve read the book in the living room. 史蒂夫在客厅里读了那本书。

Does in the living room describe the book Steve read? That is, he read the book that was in the living room. In that case, the phrase is adjectival. in the living room（在客厅里）描述的是史蒂夫读的那本书吗？也就是说，他读的是在客厅里的那本书。那样的话，这个短语是形容词性的。

But it might be adverbial: Steve was in the living room when he read the book. The sentence can plausibly be read either way, which is not at all unusual. 但它也可能是副词性的：史蒂夫读那本书时在客厅里。这个句子两种读法都说得通，这并不罕见。

To clarify, we could rewrite it this way: 为了澄清，我们可以这样改写：

In the living room, Steve read the book. 在客厅里，史蒂夫读了那本书。

Now the phrase is unmistakably adverbial. 现在这个短语无疑是副词性的。

There’s more. Adverbial prepositional phrases can also modify adjectives and adverbs. Below, they modify the adjectives sure and careless: 还有更多。副词性介词短语也可以修饰形容词和副词。下面，它们修饰形容词 sure 和 careless：

He was too sure of himself. 他太确信自己了。

He was careless with the dynamite. 他对待炸药不小心。

(By the way, both of the adjectives above are called predicate ** adjectives, which we’ll learn about later.) （顺便说一句，上面两个形容词都称为谓语形容词**（predicate adjectives），我们以后会学到。）

Next, these prepositional phrases modify the adverb far: 接下来，这些介词短语修饰副词 far：

Musial hit the ball far into left field. 穆夏尔把球击远飞向左外野。

We steered the boat far from the dock. 我们把船远远驶离了码头。

In the four examples above, the prepositional phrases follow the words they modify. These adverbial uses are less common than those modifying verbs, and they are not moveable. 在上面四个例子中，介词短语跟随它们所修饰的词。这些副词性用法不如修饰动词的那些常见，而且它们不能移动。

CONCERNING AND REGARDING OTHERS

关于 concerning 与 regarding 等

Along with those we’ve seen so far, there are more one-word prepositions that are unusual, because they look like verbs. Specifically, they’re the –ing form of verbs. Here’s a list of common ones, with objects: 除了我们目前见过的那些，还有更多不寻常的单词介词，因为它们看起来像动词。具体地说，它们是动词的 –ing 形式。以下是一个常见列表，附有宾语：

barring bad weather including her concerning the budget pending your letter considering the circumstances respecting your question counting you regarding that issue excepting me saving one last preposition following the instructions touching the matter （barring 除非 / including 包括 / concerning 关于 / pending 待…时 / considering 考虑到 / respecting 关于 / counting 包括 / regarding 关于 / excepting 除…外 / saving 除…外 / following 按照 / touching 关于）

Some of these look like participles (which are –ing verbs used adjectivally, a category we examine in Chapter 17). They may have begun life that way. (Words sometimes go downhill like that.) 其中一些看起来像分词（participles，即用作形容词的 –ing 动词，这是我们在第 17 章考察的一类）。它们可能最初就是这样产生的。（词有时也会这样堕落。）

Even the first list of prepositions contained one –ing word: during, with is a form of a verb we no longer use: dure, meaning endure. 就连第一份介词列表也包含一个 –ing 词：during（在…期间），它是我们不再使用的一个动词 dure（意为“忍受”）的形式。

Other prepositions that look a bit like participles include given and notwithstanding: 其他看起来有点像分词的介词包括 given 和 notwithstanding：

Given the weather, we should cancel the trip. Notwithstanding the weather, we’ll go anyway. 鉴于天气，我们应该取消旅行。尽管天气如此，我们还是要去。

Some authorities don’t accept all of the words above as prepositions. 有些权威不承认上面所有的词都是介词。

PHRASAL PREPOSITIONS

短语介词

This kind of preposition consists of a two-word phrase used as if it were one word. In the following examples, these phrasal prepositions are underlined: 这类介词由一个双词短语构成，用起来像是一个词。在下面的例子中，这些短语介词加了下划线：

according to the Bible instead of Stephanie as for Steve out of flour because of the time owing to the weather depending on the weather up to you except for Patrick （according to 根据 / instead of 代替 / as for 至于 / out of 没有 / because of 因为 / owing to 由于 / depending on 取决于 / up to 取决于 / except for 除…外）

But grammatical categories can be porous, and sometimes au- thorities disagree about a word or phrase. Some grammar books and dictionaries identify the following phrases (or others like them) as prepositions: 但语法范畴可以是通透的，有时权威们对一个词或短语会有分歧。有些语法书和词典把下列短语（或类似短语）认定为介词：

ahead of you contrary to opinion alongside of you due to him apart from you next to you away from you together with you close to you （ahead of 在…前面 / contrary to 与…相反 / alongside of 在…旁边 / due to 由于 / apart from 除…外 / next to 紧挨 / away from 远离 / together with 与…一起 / close to 靠近）

But there’s another way to analyze phrases like these. The first word could be read as an adjective or adverb depending on context, followed by a one-word preposition and its object (*of you, * *from you, *and the others). 但还有另一种分析这类短语的方法。第一个词根据语境可以读作形容词或副词，后面跟着一个单词介词及其宾语（of you、from you 等）。

For example, the prepositional phrases in the following sen- tences are adverbial, modifying the adjectives and adverbs they follow: We are ahead of them. We are next to them. Events were contrary to expectations. We pulled alongside of the truck. 例如，下面句子中的介词短语是副词性的，修饰它们所跟随的形容词和副词：我们在他们前面。我们在他们旁边。事件与预期相反。我们把车开到了卡车旁边。

Some authorities classify the following three-word phrases (and a few others) as prepositions: 有些权威把下列三词短语（以及少数其他短语）归为介词：

by means of in back of in case of in charge of in front of in search of （by means of 通过 / in back of 在…后面 / in case of 万一 / in charge of 负责 / in front of 在…前面 / in search of 寻找）

But in their usual contexts, these are better analyzed as a series of two prepositional phrases, as in these examples: By means of law, the project will be stopped. He is in charge of the unit. She is in front of the audience. Call me in case of an emergency. 但在通常的语境中，这些更好地被分析为两个介词短语的系列，如下例：通过法律，这个项目将被阻止。他负责这个单位。她在观众面前。万一有紧急情况，给我打电话。

So we’ll claim that prepositions are never more than two words long*. But don’t be surprised if you encounter grammar books and dictionaries that recognize some three-word English phrases as “phrasal prepositions” or “compound prepositions.” 所以我们主张介词从不超过两个词长。*但如果你遇到把某些英语三词短语认定为“短语介词”或“复合介词”的语法书和词典，也不要惊讶。

LA PRÉPOSITION

外来介词（LA PRÉPOSITION）

One remaining sub-class of prepositions are words borrowed from Latin and French. You’ll encounter them seldom, but most have their uses in certain contexts. 介词中剩下的一小类是从拉丁语和法语借来的词。你很少会遇到它们，但大多数在特定语境中有其用途。

à la [meaning “in the manner of”] He attempted to write à la H. P. Lovecraft. à la [意为“以…的风格”] 他试图以 H. P. 洛夫克拉夫特的风格写作。

bar [meaning “except for”] She is the best, bar none. bar [意为“除…之外”] 她是最棒的，无人能及。

circa [meaning “in approximately”] Chaucer was born circa 1340. circa [意为“大约”] 乔叟大约生于 1340 年。

cum [meaning “together with”] He has built an office cum workshop. cum [意为“与…一起”] 他建了一间兼具工作间的办公室。

per [meaning “for every”] This car gets twenty-one miles per gallon. per [意为“每”] 这辆车每加仑跑二十一英里。

re [meaning “about”] We are writing re your complaint. re [意为“关于”] 我们就你的投诉写信。

versus [meaning “against”; abbreviated v.] We studied the famous case of Griswold v. Connecticut. versus [意为“对抗”；缩写为 v.] 我们研究了著名的 Griswold v. Connecticut 案。

via [meaning “by way of”] We traveled via the Interminable Turnpike. via [意为“经由”] 我们经由无尽收费公路旅行。

vis-à-vis [meaning “compared with”] We will consider our expenses vis-à-vis our income. vis-à-vis [意为“与…相比”] 我们将把我们的支出与收入相比较。

In general, avoid these prepositions unless the context justifies them. Using them carelessly makes you seem pretentious, and there are perfectly good English words and phrases that you can use instead. 一般来说，除非语境需要，应避免使用这些介词。随意使用它们会让你显得做作，而且有完全好的英语词和短语可以替代。

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者的要点

1. Should you end a sentence with a preposition?

1. 该不该以介词结束句子？

One of the best-known rules of prescriptive grammar insists that we must never end sentences with prepositions. But, in fact, good professional writers do it all the time. 规范语法中最著名的规则之一坚持我们绝不能以介词结束句子。但事实上，优秀的专业作者一直在这样做。

You should be aware, however, that in formal contexts, some writers and editors regard sentences like the following as too informal or just plain wrong: 不过你应该知道，在正式语境中，有些作者和编辑认为下面这样的句子过于口语化，或者干脆就是错的：

He is the person who I want you to give this to. 他是我希望你把这件东西给的人。

This sentence troubles some readers for one or two reasons. First, the preposition to is no longer before its object, who. In fact, the preposition and its object are widely separated. Second, by the strictest rules of grammar, who should be whom. 这个句子让一些读者困扰，原因有一两个。首先，介词 to 不再位于其宾语 who 之前。事实上，介词和它的宾语被远远分开了。其次，按照最严格的语法规则，who 应该是 whom。

Some editors and writers would prefer this version of the sentence: 有些编辑和作者会更喜欢这个版本的句子：

He is the person to whom I want you to give this. 他是我希望你把这件东西交给的人。

Still other editors might find this corrected version excessively formal for some purposes and readers because of whom and the placement of the prepositional phrase. 还有一些编辑可能会觉得这个改正后的版本因 whom 和介词短语的位置，对某些目的和读者来说过于正式。

If necessary, we can usually rewrite an entire sentence to elim- inate problems like these, as the next two possible revisions show: Give this to him. He should get this. 如有必要，我们通常可以改写整个句子来消除这类问题，如下面两种可能的改法：把这件给他。他应该得到这件。

2. Unnecessary prepositions.

2. 不必要的介词。

It’s always a mistake to add an unnecessary preposition to a sentence. Here are some examples: 给句子加上不必要的介词总是个错误。以下是一些例子：

She got off of the train this morning. Where did you find her at? She was waiting beside of the station. 她今天早上从火车上下来。你在哪里找到她的？她在车站旁边等着。

These are not colossal errors, but deleting unnecessary words is always a good thing to do. 这些不是大错，但删去不必要的词总是一件好事。

EXERCISES

练习

6a. In the following sentences underline the prepositional phrases and double-underline the preposition. Some sentences contain more than one prepositional phrase. If you need to, refer to the lists of prepositions in this chapter. 6a. 在下列句子中，给介词短语加下划线，并给介词加双下划线。有些句子包含不止一个介词短语。如果需要，请查阅本章的介词列表。

1. In the morning, I drink coffee with cream.

2. 早上，我喝加奶油的咖啡。

3. As a rule, I never put sugar in it.

4. 作为一个习惯，我从不往里加糖。

5. Amid cars and trucks, Edwina ran across the street.

6. 在汽车和卡车之间，埃德温娜跑过了街道。

7. I am looking for the owner of this dog.

8. 我在找这只狗的主人。

9. Are you referring to the dog that is nipping at your leg?

10. 你指的是那只咬你腿的狗吗？

11. Throughout the book, the author emphasizes the influence

12. 全书之中，作者强调了历史对我们事件认知的影响。 of history upon our perception of events.

13. Like Arthur, I walked down the hall and paid no attention to

14. 像阿瑟一样，我走过走廊，对办公室里的噪音毫不在意。 the noise within the office.

15. According to Arthur, the noise out of the office was because

16. 据阿瑟说，办公室传出的噪音是因为埃德和格雷斯之间的争吵。 of an argument between Ed and Grace.

17. Arthur should not have been left in charge of the office

18. 夏天期间，不该让阿瑟负责办公室。 during the summer.

19. In case of further conflicts, we should make plans regarding

20. 万一有进一步冲突，我们应该制定关于所有员工适当培训的计划。 appropriate training for all employees.

6b. After you finish Exercise 6a, go back through the ten sentences above and decide if the prepositional phrases are adjectival (ADJ) or adverbial (ADV), and label them accordingly. 6b. 完成练习 6a 后，回过头看上面十个句子，判断介词短语是形容词性的（ADJ）还是副词性的（ADV），并相应标注。

Remember that adjectival prepositional phrases usually follow the nouns they modify and describe those nouns in some way. 记住，形容词性介词短语通常跟随它们所修饰的名词，并以某种方式描述那些名词。

Adverbial prepositional phrases often follow the verb or appear at the beginning of the sentence. Adverbials tell us when, where, * why, or how the action takes place. They are often moveable. 副词性介词短语通常跟随动词，或出现在句子开头。副词性短语告诉我们动作发生何时、何地、为何或如何*。它们通常可以移动。

你、我，以及

Have we got a chapter for you. We’ve seen that nouns can be the simple subjects in sentences. There is another kind of word that can be a simple subject (and can play other roles in a sentence). It’s the pronoun: a word that takes the place of a noun that appeared earlier in the context. 我们*（we）给你（you）*准备了一章。我们已经看到，名词可以是句子中的简单主语。还有另一种词可以作简单主语（并且可以在句子中扮演其他角色）。它就是代词（pronoun）：一个代替语境中早先出现过的名词的词。

Common English pronouns include I, me, mine, you, yours, *he, she, it, him, her, his, hers, *and others. 常见的英语代词包括 I、me、mine、you、yours、he、she、it、him、her、his、hers 等。

When a pronoun takes the place of a noun, the noun replaced is called the antecedent of the pronoun. The antecedent usually appears before (ante-) its pronoun. 当一个代词代替一个名词时，被替代的名词称为该代词的先行词（antecedent）。先行词通常出现在其代词之前（ante-，意为“前”）。

In the sentences that follow, the pronouns are underlined. Not all of them are subjects: 在下面的句子中，代词加了下划线。它们并不全是主语：

Gershwin composed. He composed. 格什温作曲。他作曲。

(Gershwin is the antecedent of He.) （Gershwin 是 He 的先行词。）

George loves Ethel. He loves her. 乔治爱埃塞尔。他爱她。

(George is the antecedent of He, and Ethel is the antecedent of her.) （George 是 He 的先行词，Ethel 是 her 的先行词。）

Pearl painted Mr. Morton’s porch. She painted his porch. 珀尔粉刷了莫顿先生的门廊。她粉刷了他的门廊。

(*Pearl *is the antecedent of She, and Mr. Morton is the antecedent of his.) She enjoyed painting it. （Pearl 是 She 的先行词，Mr. Morton 是 his 的先行词。）她喜欢粉刷它。

(Porch is the antecedent of it.) （Porch 是 it 的先行词。）

THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS

人称代词

There are thousands of nouns in English but only a few dozen pronouns, and those we use most are called the personal pro- nouns. All of the pronouns in the sentences above, and all that we discuss in this chapter, are personal pronouns. 英语中有成千上万个名词，但代词只有几十个，而我们最常用的是称为人称代词（personal pronouns）的那些。上面句子中的所有代词，以及我们在本章讨论的所有代词，都是人称代词。

The following tables contain all of the personal pronouns in English, organized according to their several characteristics: 下表包含了英语中所有人称代词，按它们的几个特征排列：

Singular Personal Pronouns

单数人称代词

Nominative Objective Possessive 主格 宾格 所有格

First Person I me my, mine 第一人称 我 我 我的、我的

Second Person you you your, yours 第二人称 你 你 你的、你的

Third Person he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers, its 第三人称 他、她、它 他、她、它 他的、她的、她的、它的

Notice that the third-person singular pronouns also have gender: he, she, or it. 注意，第三人称单数代词还有性之分：he、she 或 it。

Plural Personal Pronouns

复数人称代词

Nominative Objective Possessive 主格 宾格 所有格

First Person we us our, ours 第一人称 我们 我们 我们的、我们的

Second Person you you your, yours 第二人称 你 你 你的、你的

Third Person they them their, theirs 第三人称 他们 他们 他们的、他们的

Notice that the possessive pronouns like *yours, hers, and * theirs don’t contain apostrophes. The tables also show us that all personal pronouns are classified by number, singular or plural. 注意，像 yours、hers 和 theirs 这样的所有格代词不包含撇号。这些表还告诉我们，所有人称代词都按数分类，即单数或复数。

PRONOUNS AND PERSON

代词与人称

All personal pronouns are also classified by person. If you’re referring to yourself with pronouns, you use first-person pro- nouns: I, me, my, and mine, or the plural forms we, us, our(s). 所有人称代词还按人称（person）分类。如果你用代词指自己，你用第一人称代词：I、me、my 和 mine，或复数形式 we、us、our(s)。

If you’re referring to the person you’re speaking with, you use second-person pronouns: you and your(s). The plural forms are the same. 如果你指的是你正在与之交谈的人，你用第二人称代词：you 和 your(s)。复数形式相同。

If you’re referring to another person outside the conversation, you use third-person pronouns: 如果你指的是对话之外的另一个人，你用第三人称代词：

*he, she, it; * *him, her, it; and * his, her, its (or the plurals they, them, their, and theirs) 他、她、它；他、她、它；以及他的、她的、它的（或复数 they、them、their 和 theirs）

The third-person singular pronouns are also classified by gender: masculine** (he, him, his), feminine (she, her, hers), and ** neuter** (it, its). 第三人称单数代词还按性**（gender）分类：阳性（he、him、his）、阴性（she、her、hers）和中性（it、its）。

PRONOUNS AND CASE

代词与格

Finally, we classify personal pronouns by cases: the nomina- tive case, the possessive case, and the objective case. These terms are used all the time in discussions of language, so it’s help- ful to understand them. They refer to the forms of the pronouns that we use in certain positions in a sentence. 最后，我们按格（case）对人称代词分类：主格、所有格和宾格。这些术语在语言讨论中一直被使用，所以理解它们很有帮助。它们指的是我们在句子中某些位置使用的代词形式。

The pronouns in the nominative case are the ones we use as subjects: 主格的代词是我们用作主语的那些：

I talked to Mr. Morton. You talked to Mr. Morton. 我和莫顿先生谈了。你和莫顿先生谈了。

He talked to Mr. Morton. She talked to Mr. Morton. We talked to Mr. Morton. They talked to Mr. Morton, too, but he is still juggling vases. 他和莫顿先生谈了。她和莫顿先生谈了。我们和莫顿先生谈了。他们也和莫顿先生谈了，但他还在耍花瓶。

The pronouns in the possessive case are used to indicate possession, and most of the possessive pronouns have two forms: 所有格的代词用来表示所有关系，而且大多数所有格代词有两种形式：

Hey, that’s my vase. (Or, That vase is mine.) Hey, that’s your vase. (Or, That vase is yours.) Hey, that’s his vase. (That vase is his.) Hey, that’s her vase. (Or, That vase is hers.) Hey, that’s our vase. (Or, That vase is ours.) Hey, that’s their vase. (Or, That vase is theirs.) 嘿，那是我的花瓶。（或者，那个花瓶是我的。）嘿，那是你的花瓶。（或者，那个花瓶是你的。）嘿，那是他的花瓶。（那个花瓶是他的。）嘿，那是她的花瓶。（或者，那个花瓶是她的。）嘿，那是我们的花瓶。（或者，那个花瓶是我们的。）嘿，那是他们的花瓶。（或者，那个花瓶是他们的。）

Notice that there are no apostrophes in these –s possessives, or in its. This frequently confuses inexperienced writers. Apostro- phes show possession only with nouns: *yours, ours, theirs, but * children’s, women’s, Ruthie’s, Pearl’s, Mr. Morton’s. 注意，这些 –s 所有格中，以及 its 中，都没有撇号。这常常让缺乏经验的作者困惑。撇号只在名词上表示所有关系：yours、ours、theirs，而 children’s、women’s、Ruthie’s、Pearl’s、Mr. Morton’s。

The pronouns in the objective case are used for almost every other purpose in a sentence. For example, when pronouns are the objects of prepositions, they are always in the objective case: 宾格的代词用于句子中几乎所有其他目的。例如，当代词是介词的宾语时，它们总是宾格：

I gave the book to Julie. I gave it to her. Mike said that I can ride with him. Give the vase to me. Give it to us. Give it to them. 我把书给了朱莉。我把它给了她。迈克说我可以和他一起坐车。把花瓶给我。把它给我们。把它给他们。

If we’re native speakers of English, we typically use the correct cases naturally. What we may have trouble remembering, as stu- dents of grammar, are terms for the three cases and the forms they describe. If you need to, you can learn this simple test sentence to help you remember the terms for the three cases of pronouns: 如果我们是以英语为母语的人，我们通常会自然地使用正确的格。作为语法学习者，我们可能难以记住的是三种格的术语以及它们所描述的形式。如果需要，你可以记住这个简单的测试句来帮你记住代词三种格的术语：

N took O to P’s house. N 带 O 去了 P 的家。

Here, obviously, N, O, and P stand for the three cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. Insert the right pronoun in each position, and you will know the case of the pronouns in question: 这里，显然 N、O 和 P 代表三种格：主格、宾格和所有格。在每个位置填入正确的代词，你就能知道相关代词的格：

He took her to their house. They took us to her house. We took them to his house. 他带她去了他们的家。他们带我们去了她的家。我们带他们去了他的家。

In each case, the first pronoun is nominative, the second objective, and the third possessive. 在每种情况下，第一个代词是主格，第二个是宾格，第三个是所有格。

The personal pronouns are the most important pronouns in English. We’ll examine other kinds later. 人称代词是英语中最重要的代词。我们稍后会考察其他种类。

BE TENSE!

注意时态！

Because we’re learning about the matter of person in this chapter, it seems like a good time to return to verbs briefly, and to one in particular. 因为我们在本章学习人称的问题，这似乎是个好时机，让我们简要地回到动词，特别是一个动词。

The verb to be is the most frequently used verb in English, and it’s also the most irregular verb. Because its irregular forms are tied up with the matter of person, we’ll examine be in detail here. 动词 to be 是英语中最常用的动词，也是最不规则的动词。因为它的不规则形式与人称问题紧密相连，我们在这里详细考察 be。

These are the simple tenses of be. Notice how the forms change in the first, second, and third person, as well as in the singular and plural: 以下是 be 的简单时态。注意这些形式在第一、第二、第三人称中，以及单数和复数中如何变化：

Singular Present Past Future 单数 现在时 过去时 将来时

1st person I am I was I will be 第一人称 我是 我曾是 我将是

2nd person You are You were You will be 第二人称 你是 你曾是 你将是

3rd person He is He was He will be 第三人称 他是 他曾是 他将是

Plural Present Past Future 复数 现在时 过去时 将来时

1st person We are We were We will be 第一人称 我们是 我们曾是 我们将是

2nd person You are You were You will be 第二人称 你是 你曾是 你将是

3rd person They are They were They will be 第三人称 他们是 他们曾是 他们将是

Notice that the second-person forms are identical in the singu- lar and plural. Notice, too, that there is great variety in the singular tenses, which use six different forms (*am, are, is, was, were, and * be), but the plurals are more consistent. 注意，第二人称形式在单数和复数中相同。还要注意，单数时态形式多样，使用了六种不同的形式（am、are、is、was、were 和 be），而复数形式则更一致。

As we move from the simple tenses to the tenses that require more auxiliaries, there is less variation in *be. *For that reason, we’ll look only at the singular in the following tenses. 当我们从简单时态转到需要更多助动词的时态时，be 的变化减少了。因此，在下面的时态中我们只看单数。

These are the perfect tenses of be: 以下是 be 的完成时态：

Singular Present Past Future 单数 现在时 过去时 将来时

1st person I have been I had been I will have been 第一人称 我曾经是 我过去曾是 我将已经是

2nd person You have been You had been You will have been 第二人称 你曾经是 你过去曾是 你将已经是

3rd person She has been he had been She will have been 第三人称 她曾经是 他过去曾是 她将已经是

In the perfect tense, the main verb is always the past participle, been, and the auxiliaries have, had, and has show tense and number in every tense but the future. 在完成时态中，主动词总是过去分词 been，而助动词 have、had 和 has 在除将来时以外的每个时态中表示时态和数。

These are the progressive tenses of be: 以下是 be 的进行时态：

Singular Present Past Future 单数 现在时 过去时 将来时

1st person I am being I was being I will be being 第一人称 我正（是） 我过去正（是） 我将正（是）

2nd person You are being You were being You will be being 第二人称 你正（是） 你过去正（是） 你将正（是）

3rd person He is being He was being He will be being 第三人称 他正（是） 他过去正（是） 他将正（是）

Notice here and in the perfect progressive tense (which is below) that the main verb is always being. But the first auxiliary verb in these tenses show considerable variation: am, are, is, was, * and were*. 注意，在这里以及下面的完成进行时态中，主动词总是 being。但这些时态中的第一个助动词变化很大：am、are、is、was 和 were。

These are the perfect progressive tenses of be: 以下是 be 的完成进行时态：

Singular Present Past Future 单数 现在时 过去时 将来时

I have been being I had been being I will have been being 1st person You have been being You had been being You will have been being 2nd person He has been being He had been being He will have been being 3rd person （单数完成进行时态：第一人称 我一直（是）/ 我过去一直（是）/ 我将一直（是）；第二人称 你一直（是）/ 你过去一直（是）/ 你将一直（是）；第三人称 他一直（是）/ 他过去一直（是）/ 他将一直（是））

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者的要点

1. Use objective case pronouns as objects of prepositions.

1. 作介词宾语时使用宾格代词。

Sometimes you see nominative case pronouns used as objects of the prepositions: 有时你会看到主格代词被用作介词的宾语：

WRONG: Between Bob and I, we’ll get the job done. WRONG: Give the responsibility to Susan and I. 错误：我和鲍勃一起，我们会把工作做完。错误：把责任交给苏珊和我。

But the nominative case is never right in this position. Always use the objective case as the object of the preposition: 但主格在这个位置永远不对。总是用宾格作为介词的宾语：

Between Bob and me, we’ll get the job done. Give the report to Susan and me. 我和鲍勃之间，我们会把工作做完。把报告交给苏珊和我。

In the second example, you can make certain that you have the right pronoun by leaving out Susan: Give* the report to me.* If me is right in that sentence, it’s also right when used in to Susan and me. 在第二个例子中，你可以通过去掉苏珊来确定你用了正确的代词：把报告给我。如果 me 在那句话中是对的，那么用在给苏珊和我中也是对的。

In both sentences, plural pronouns like us could also work in place of the two objects, but the pronouns must still be in the objective case. 在两句话中，像 us 这样的复数代词也可以用来代替那两个宾语，但代词仍必须是宾格。

By the way, there is no grammatical reason to put me last in the two examples above; it’s a matter of courtesy. And courtesy is important, too. 顺便说一句，在上面两个例子中把 me 放在最后并没有语法上的理由；那是礼貌问题。而礼貌也很重要。

2. Use pronoun gender carefully.

2. 谨慎使用代词的性。

The third-person singular pronouns (he, she, it, and the others) can be troublesome. Consider this passage: 第三人称单数代词（he、she、it 及其他）可能很麻烦。请看这段文字：

Each physician should submit his credentials to the hospital’s human resources department. Each nurse must submit her credentials, too. 每位医生都应将他的资格证书提交给医院的人力资源部门。每位护士也必须提交她的资格证书。

In the past, these sentences may have been completely acceptable to most readers and editors. As you know, they are not acceptable today. Most readers and editors object to the apparent assumption that all physicians are men and all nurses are women. 过去，这些句子对大多数读者和编辑来说可能是完全可接受的。如你所知，它们在今天不可接受。大多数读者和编辑反对那种明显的假定——即所有医生都是男人、所有护士都是女人。

Today the usual way to avoid this problem, and the way we recommend in most cases, is to make the sentence plural: 今天，避免这个问题通常的做法——也是我们在大多数情况下推荐的做法——是把句子改成复数：

All physicians and nurses must submit their credentials to the hospital’s human resources department. 所有医生和护士都必须将他们的资格证书提交给医院的人力资源部门。

Sometimes we can omit pronouns altogether: 有时我们可以完全省略代词：

All physicians and nurses must submit credentials . . . . 所有医生和护士都必须提交资格证书……

Other ways, like the use of his or her or his/her, are possible, but some editors regard them as awkward or wordy. 其他方式，比如使用 his or her 或 his/her，也是可能的，但有些编辑认为它们笨拙或啰嗦。

There’s still another way. Today *they, them, and their are * sometimes used as singular pronouns, when you don’t know the gender of the antecedent: 还有另一种方式。今天，当你不知道先行词的性别时，they、them 和 their 有时被用作单数代词：

Tell your doctor to send me their diagnosis of your case. 告诉你的医生把他们对你的病例的诊断发给我。

Some people approve, and some don’t, so (in certain profes- sional contexts) tread carefully and consider the context. Again, you can rewrite the sentence to sidestep the entire issue: Send me * the diagnosis . . . .* 有些人赞成，有些人不赞成，所以（在某些专业语境中）要谨慎行事并考虑语境。同样，你可以改写句子来回避整个问题：把诊断发给我……

3. Avoid pronoun ambiguity.

3. 避免代词歧义。

Used carelessly, pronouns can be confusing. 使用不当，代词会令人困惑。

CONFUSING: The speaker discussed the causes of the reces- sion, but I didn’t understand it at all. 混乱：演讲者讨论了衰退的原因，但我完全不理解它。

BETTER: In his speech, the speaker discussed the causes of the recession, but I didn’t understand him at all. 更好：在他的演讲中，演讲者讨论了衰退的原因，但我完全不理解他。

BETTER: The speaker discussed the causes of the recession in his speech, but I didn’t understand it at all. 更好：演讲者在他的演讲中讨论了衰退的原因，但我完全不理解它。

These three sentences demonstrate the importance of select- ing the right pronouns for your context. This is called pronoun ** agreement. When writers neglect pronoun agreement, they of- ten confuse their readers. 这三个句子说明了为语境选择正确的代词的重要性。这称为代词一致**（pronoun agreement）。当作者忽视代词一致时，他们常常让读者困惑。

Here are two more examples of pronoun ambiguity. In these sentences, what is the antecedent of she? 这里还有两个代词歧义的例子。在这些句子中，she 的先行词是什么？

Sally’s mother has collected dolls since she was twelve years old. 萨利的母亲从她十二岁起就收集玩偶。

Sally told her mother that she was too old to play with dolls. 萨利告诉她母亲，她太大了，不能玩玩偶了。

The reader shouldn’t have to guess who she is. It’s usually easy to rewrite the sentences to avoid ambiguity: 读者不该去猜 she 是谁。通常很容易改写句子来避免歧义：

Sally’s mother has collected dolls for twenty-three years. 萨利的母亲收集玩偶已有二十三年了。

Sally thought that her mother was too old to play with dolls and told her so. 萨利认为她母亲太大了，不能玩玩偶了，并这样告诉了她。

(Sally is asking for trouble.) （萨利在自找麻烦。）

4. Maintain a consistent point of view.

4. 保持一致的视角。

That is, don’t change pronouns unnecessarily.** **Consider the confused point of view in this paragraph: 也就是说，不要不必要地更换代词。请考虑这段文字中混乱的视角：

When you have worked with adolescents for a few months, you will know what to expect. People who work with adolescents learn quickly what problems they will encounter in most situations. You get to know how they think. 当你和青少年一起工作几个月后，你就会知道该期待什么。和青少年一起工作的人很快就能了解到在大多数情况下他们会遇到什么问题。你会了解他们怎么想。

Don’t shift point of view without a good reason. Be consistent in your use of pronouns. Use third person or, when reasonable, first person, or a careful combination of first and third. 没有充分理由，不要转换视角。在使用代词时要保持一致。使用第三人称，或在合理时使用第一人称，或谨慎地结合第一和第三人称。

Use second person (you) when it makes sense to address the reader directly. 当你直接对读者说话说得通时，使用第二人称（you）。

Here’s an improved version of the same paragraph: 下面是同一段文字的改进版本：

After you have worked with adolescents for a few months, you will know what to expect. You will quickly learn what problems you will encounter in most situations. You will get to know how they think. 在你和青少年一起工作几个月后，你就会知道该期待什么。你会很快了解到在大多数情况下你会遇到什么问题。你会了解他们怎么想。

Inexperienced writers sometimes overuse the second-person pronouns, but it is usually acceptable in instructions like the passage above, or in personal communications like letters and emails. The second-person is also useful in establishing a more informal, conversational tone, as we have done in these chapters. 缺乏经验的作者有时会过度使用第二人称代词，但在像上面那段说明文字中，或在信件和电子邮件等私人交流中，它通常是可以接受的。第二人称在建立更非正式、对话式的语气时也很有用，正如我们在这些章节中所做的那样。

It is also grammatical to use the indefinite pronoun one in passages like this: 在这种文字中使用不定代词 one 在语法上也是成立的：

After one has worked with adolescents for a few months, one will know what to expect. One quickly learns what problems will be encountered in most situations. 在一个人和青少年一起工作几个月后，他就会知道该期待什么。一个人很快就能了解到在大多数情况下会遇到什么问题。

This use of one is now often seen as excessively formal and impersonal, and even awkward. Using you is usually a better idea. 这种 one 的用法现在常被视为过于正式、非个人化，甚至笨拙。通常，使用 you 是更好的主意。

5. Use pronouns precisely.

5. 准确地使用代词。

Using *they, you, *and it imprecisely is often a symptom of careless writing: 不精确地使用 they、you 和 it 常常是粗心写作的症状：

WRONG: They don’t allow you to build fires in the city park. 错误：他们不允许你在城市公园里生火。

BETTER: The city doesn’t allow anyone to build fires in the city park. 更好：城市不允许任何人在城市公园里生火。

WRONG: It says in the letter that your band, Noise Pollution, is banned from performing in the city limits. 错误：信里说你的乐队“噪音污染”被禁止在市界内演出。

BETTER: The City Council says in its letter that your band, Noise Pollution, is banned from performing in the city limits. 更好：市议会在它的信中说，你的乐队“噪音污染”被禁止在市界内演出。

EXERCISES

练习

**7a. **In this exercise, you need to write five versions of the same short sentence. Each version will use a different pronoun. 7a. 在这个练习中，你需要写出同一短句的五个版本。每个版本使用一个不同的代词。

First read the pronouns in the parentheses after each sentence. Then, for each pronoun, find the correct case to insert into the blank. Consult the pronoun tables in this chapter if you need to. 首先阅读每句话后面括号里的代词。然后，对每个代词，找出应填入空处的正确格。如果需要，请查阅本章的代词表。

Example: 示例：

Give the book to _____. (I, he, we, they, she) 把书给____。（I, he, we, they, she）

Give the book to me. Give the book to him. Give the book to us. Give the book to them. Give the book to her. 把书给我。把书给他。把书给我们。把书给他们。把书给她。

As you can see, to complete the sentence, you needed the objective case for each of the requested pronouns (I, he, we, they, she). 如你所见，要完成这个句子，你需要的每个被要求的代词都是宾格（I、he、we、they、she）。

Use the objective case in these sentences: 在这些句子中使用宾格：

1. You can go with _____. (I, he, we, they, she)

2. 你可以和____一起去。（I, he, we, they, she）

3. We will take _____ to the mall. (he, she, they, you)

4. 我们会带____去商场。（he, she, they, you）

Use the nominative case in this sentence: 在这个句子中使用主格：

3. _____ can go with me. (him, her, you, them, us)
4. ____可以和我一起去。（him, her, you, them, us）

Use the possessive case in these sentences: 在这些句子中使用所有格：

4. That book isn’t yours. It’s _____. (I, he, we, they, she)

5. 那本书不是你的。它是____。（I, he, we, they, she）

6. We won’t go to your place. We’ll go to _____ place. (I, he,

7. 我们不去你的地方。我们会去____的地方。（I, he, we, they, she) we, they, she）

7b. Write the pronoun that is specified by the terms. Usually only one pronoun is possible for each exercise. Consult the pronoun tables when you need to. 7b. 写出由术语规定的代词。通常每个练习只有一个可能的代词。需要时请查阅代词表。

Example: 示例：

First-person nominative singular: I Second-person possessive: your, yours Masculine third-person objective singular: him 第一人称主格单数：I 第二人称所有格：your, yours 阳性第三人称宾格单数：him

1. First-person objective singular:

2. 第一人称宾格单数：

3. First-person objective plural:

4. 第一人称宾格复数：

5. Second-person nominative singular (or plural):

6. 第二人称主格单数（或复数）：

7. Feminine third-person nominative singular:

8. 阴性第三人称主格单数：

9. Third-person nominative plural:

10. 第三人称主格复数：

11. Third-person objective singular (masculine):

12. 第三人称宾格单数（阳性）：

13. Third-person objective plural:

14. 第三人称宾格复数：

15. First-person nominative plural:

16. 第一人称主格复数：

17. First-person possessive singular:

18. 第一人称所有格单数：

19. Neuter third-person nominative singular:

20. 中性第三人称主格单数：

7c. Classify the following pronouns according to person (first-, second-, or third-person), case (nominative, objective, or possessive), and number (singular or plural). With the third-person singular pronouns, also classify gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter). Consult the tables when necessary. 7c. 按人称（第一、第二或第三人称）、格（主格、宾格或所有格）和数（单数或复数）对下列代词分类。对于第三人称单数代词，还要按性（阳性、阴性或中性）分类。必要时请查阅表格。

Examples: 示例：

I (First-person nominative singular) Me (First-person objective singular) I（第一人称主格单数） Me（第一人称宾格单数）

1. My

2. 我的

3. He

4. 他

5. Him

6. 他（宾格）

7. Its

8. 它的

9. Yours

10. 你的

11. We

12. 我们

13. Us

14. 我们（宾格）

15. Our

16. 我们的

17. They

18. 他们

19. Them

20. 他们（宾格）

**7d. **In the following sentences, identify and correct carelessly used pronouns. Some sentences may require some rewriting, and some of the underscored pronouns are correct. In some cases, there may be more than one way to rewrite the sentence. 7d. 在下列句子中，找出并改正使用粗心的代词。有些句子可能需要改写，有些带下划线的代词是正确的。在某些情况下，可能有不止一种改写方式。

1. If anyone sees a problem, he should report it immediately.

2. 如果有人看到问题，他应该立即报告。

3. Neither excessive heat nor cold will damage the crop unless

4. 过度的热或冷都不会损害庄稼，除非 they last for weeks. 它们持续数周。

5. Its time to study grammar.

6. 是时候学习语法了。

7. If people want to do well in this course, you should be

8. 如果人们想在这门课中取得好成绩，你应该 prepared to work hard. 准备好努力学习。

9. Each of these books has their correct place on the shelves.

10. 这些书中的每一本在书架上都有它正确的位置。

11. Jim helped Jerry get to his apartment.

12. 吉姆帮杰瑞到了他的公寓。

13. A medical doctor needs to know her science well.

14. 一名医生需要好好掌握她的科学。

15. Our dog has something in it’s paw.

16. 我们的狗的爪子里有什么东西。

17. The tires need replacing and it needs a new transmission,

18. 轮胎需要更换，它需要一个新的变速箱， but I only paid five hundred dollars for it. 但我只花了五百美元买它。

19. As the bicyclists sped by the crowd, some of them nearly

20. 当自行车手从人群旁飞驰而过时，他们中的一些 hit them. 差点撞到他们。

**7e. **Complete the following tables for the simple tenses of the verb to be. Some subjects have been provided. 7e. 完成下列动词 to be 简单时态的表格。有些主语已给出。

Simple tenses: 简单时态：

Singular Present Past Future 单数 现在时 过去时 将来时

1st person I 第一人称 我

2nd person You 第二人称 你

3rd person He 第三人称 他

Plural Present Past Future 复数 现在时 过去时 将来时

1st person We 第一人称 我们

2nd person You 第二人称 你

3rd person They 第三人称 他们

**7f. **Complete the following table for the perfect tenses of the verb to be. Also provide pronouns as subjects of the verbs. 7f. 完成下列动词 to be 完成时态的表格。还要给出作为动词主语的代词。

Singular Present Past Future 单数 现在时 过去时 将来时

1st person 第一人称

2nd person 第二人称

3rd person 第三人称

**7g. **Complete the following tables for the progressive and perfect progressive tenses of the verb to be. Also provide pronouns as subjects of the verbs. 7g. 完成下列动词 to be 进行时态和完成进行时态的表格。还要给出作为动词主语的代词。

Progressive 进行时态

Singular Present Past Future 单数 现在时 过去时 将来时

1st person 第一人称

2nd person 第二人称

3rd person 第三人称

Perfect Progressive 完成进行时态

Singular Present Past Future 单数 现在时 过去时 将来时

1st person 第一人称

2nd person 第二人称

3rd person 第三人称

你干了什么？：动词及其补语

In many sentences, complements are an important part of the predicate: They’re called complements because they complete the verb. 在许多句子中，补语是谓语的重要组成部分：它们之所以被称为补语，是因为它们使动词的意义完整。

For example, all these sentences are obviously incomplete: 例如，下面这些句子显然都不完整：

Ralph seemed. Alice gave. Norton is. 拉尔夫似乎[意义不全]。艾丽斯给了[某物]。诺顿是[某人/某物]。（这些句子都不完整）

The verbs here (seemed, gave, and is) each need another word (or more) to complete their meanings. They need complements. For example: 这里的动词（seemed、gave 和 is）每个都需要另一个（或多个）词来使意义完整。它们需要补语。例如：

Ralph seemed impatient. Alice gave him his present. Norton is their neighbor. 拉尔夫显得不耐烦。艾丽斯把礼物给了他。诺顿是他们的邻居。

The underlined words are complements—nouns, pronouns, or adjectives that complete the verb in some way and are part of the complete predicates of the sentences. 带下划线的词是补语——以某种方式使动词意义完整的名词、代词或形容词，并且是句子完整谓语的一部分。

In this chapter, we’ll examine five kinds of complements. 在本章中，我们将考察五种补语。

PREDICATE ADJECTIVES

谓语形容词

Earlier we discussed two kinds of verbs: linking verbs and action verbs. We said that the relatively small number of linking verbs in English include seem, become, appear, looked, felt, and forms of the verb to be. 我们之前讨论过两类动词：系动词和行为动词。我们说过，英语中数量相对较少的系动词包括 seem、become、appear、looked、felt，以及动词 to be 的各种形式。

Linking verbs typically have complements. In these sentences, the complements are underlined: 系动词通常带有补语。在下面的句子中，补语带有下划线：

Mr. Lochenhocher is irritable. The staff appears efficient. All of his sisters are musical. Lochenhocher 先生容易发脾气。员工们显得有效率。他所有的姐妹都有音乐天赋。

Each of these underlined words is an adjective that follows the verb, and each describes the subject of the sentence. Such complements are called predicate adjectives. Here are some more examples: 这些带下划线的词都是跟在动词后面的形容词，并且都描述句子的主语。这类补语被称为谓语形容词。再举一些例子：

This chapter looks easy. He seems friendly. They became calm and quiet. 这一章看起来容易。他似乎很友好。他们变得平静而安静。

PREDICATE NOMINATIVES

谓语名词（表语）

Predicate nominatives are nouns or pronouns that follow linking verbs and describe the subject. In these examples, the predicate nominatives are underlined: 谓语名词是跟在系动词后面并描述主语的名词或代词。在下面的例子中，谓语名词带有下划线：

George became President. Helen was a teacher. We are also teachers. 乔治成为了总统。海伦曾是一名教师。我们也是教师。

In each sentence, the noun phrase following the linking verb identifies the subject of the sentence. Here are more examples: 在每个句子中，跟在系动词后面的名词短语都用以说明句子的主语。再举一些例子：

Ralph became president of our club. Norton is a menace. The Browns are good neighbors and good citizens. 拉尔夫成为了我们俱乐部的主席。诺顿是个讨厌鬼。布朗一家是善良的邻居和好公民。

Some grammar books call predicate nominatives predicate * nouns. Still others combine predicate adjectives and predicate nominatives into a single category called subject complements. 有些语法书把谓语名词称为谓语名词*（predicate nouns）。还有些语法书把谓语形容词和谓语名词合并为一个类别，称为主语补语（subject complements）。

Notice that sometimes the verb be is followed by an adverb, especially a prepositional phrase, instead of a complement: 注意，系动词 be 有时后面跟的是副词，尤其是一个介词短语，而不是补语：

Dad is at the library. The kids are in the car. 爸爸在图书馆。孩子们在车里。

DIRECT OBJECTS AND TRANSITIVE VERBS

直接宾语与及物动词

We’ve discussed action verbs before, but here we learn a bit more about them. 我们之前讨论过行为动词，但这里我们要多了解一点。

There are two kinds of action verbs, transitive and intransitive ** verbs. Transitive verbs have complements; intransitive verbs don’t need them. The sentences that follow contain intransitive verbs— no complement is present: 行为动词有两类：及物动词和不及物**动词。及物动词带有补语；不及物动词不需要补语。下面的句子包含不及物动词——没有任何补语：

The accountant disappeared. It rained today. Rain fell all day. 会计不见了。今天下雨了。雨下了一整天。

Some intransitive verbs, like disappeared, typically don’t take complements in any context. 有些不及物动词，如 disappeared，通常在任何语境中都不带补语。

Transitive verbs always have one or more complements, and they must have a direct object, a noun or pronoun that typically follows the verb and is the object of the verb’s action in some way: 及物动词总是带有一个或多个补语，并且它们必须有一个直接宾语——通常跟在动词后面，并在某种意义上是动词动作对象的名词或代词：

Susan saw the Lloyds at the mall. June addressed the audience. Ed baked the cake yesterday. 苏珊在商场看到了劳埃德一家。琼向听众发表了讲话。埃德昨天烤了蛋糕。

Here are more examples: 再举一些例子：

Ed wrote the article. The newspaper published the article and Ed’s photos. Mr. Lochenhocher wants peace and quiet. 埃德写了这篇文章。报纸发表了这篇文章和埃德的照片。Lochenhocher 先生想要和平与安静。

Many verbs can be transitive or intransitive. That is, they can be used with or without direct objects: 许多动词既可以作及物也可以作不及物。也就是说，它们可以带或不带直接宾语：

Intransitive: I’ll run to the store. 不及物： 我会跑到商店去。

She read for two hours. 她读了两个小时。

He laughed. 他笑了。

She sang. 她唱了歌。

Transitive: I run the store. 及物： 我经营这家商店。

She read the book. 她读了这本书。

He laughed a hearty laugh. 他发出一阵开怀大笑。

She sang an Irish song. 她唱了一首爱尔兰歌曲。

When the direct object is a pronoun, it must be in the objective case: 当直接宾语是代词时，它必须处于宾格：

Susan saw them at the mall. Susan greeted us warmly. 苏珊在商场看到了他们。苏珊热情地招呼我们。

INDIRECT OBJECTS

间接宾语

Indirect objects appear only in sentences with direct objects, and then they appear between the transitive verb and the direct object. They name a person or thing that receives the direct object in some way. In the following sentences, the indirect objects are underlined and the direct object is a note: 间接宾语只出现在带有直接宾语的句子中，并且位于及物动词和直接宾语之间。它们指出以某种方式接收直接宾语的人或事物。在下面的句子中，间接宾语带有下划线，直接宾语是 a note（一张便条）：

Bailey wrote me a note. Ed wrote her a note. We wrote Bailey and Ed a note. 贝利给我写了一张便条。埃德给她写了一张便条。我们给贝利和埃德写了一张便条。

Here are more sentences with indirect objects (underlined) followed by direct objects: 下面是更多带有间接宾语（下划线）后接直接宾语的句子：

Mr. Redden taught me history. Last night I read my daughter a book. We bought Ruthie an accordion. 雷登先生教我历史。昨晚我给女儿读了一本书。我们给露西买了一架手风琴。

Notice that when pronouns are indirect objects, they are also in the objective case (as with me and her in the sentences above). 注意，当代词作间接宾语时，它们也处于宾格（如上面句子中的 me 和 her）。

There is a test for the indirect object. Without changing the meaning of the sentence, the indirect object can be turned into the object of a prepositional phrase beginning with the preposition to or for. The prepositional phrase then appears after the direct object: 有一个检验间接宾语的方法。在不改变句子意义的情况下，间接宾语可以变成以介词 to 或 for 开头的介词短语的宾语。然后该介词短语出现在直接宾语之后：

Mr. Redden taught history to me. Last night I read a book to my daughter. We bought an accordion for Ruthie. 雷登先生把历史教给了我。昨晚我给女儿读了一本书。我们为露西买了一架手风琴。

But please notice the important difference. This sentence has an indirect object: 但请注意重要的区别。这个句子有一个间接宾语：

Mr. Redden taught me history. 雷登先生教我历史。

The next sentence has no indirect object; to me is a prepositional phrase: 下一个句子没有间接宾语；to me 是一个介词短语：

Mr. Redden taught history to me. 雷登先生把历史教给了我。

Some transitive verbs can take direct objects but cannot take indirect objects, as in these sentences: 有些及物动词可以带直接宾语但不能带间接宾语，如下面的句子：

Ned ate the cake. Julie wanted cake. Mr. Lochenhocher hates the violin. 内德吃了蛋糕。朱莉想要蛋糕。Lochenhocher 先生讨厌小提琴。

OBJECT COMPLEMENTS

宾语补语

The object complement is the last kind of complement we’ll discuss here, and it’s another complement used only with a transi- tive verb and a direct object. Here are some examples: 宾语补语是我们要在这里讨论的最后一种补语，它是另一种只与及物动词和直接宾语一起使用的补语。下面是一些例子：

We elected Bernice president. We named Bob the new treasurer. The news made Mr. Lochenhocher angry. 我们选举伯尼斯为主席。我们任命鲍勃为新的财务主管。这个消息让 Lochenhocher 先生很生气。

Object complements are nouns or adjectives that follow the direct object and describe the direct object, in roughly the same way that a predicate adjective or predicate nominative describes the subject. 宾语补语是跟随直接宾语并描述直接宾语的名词或形容词，大致与谓语形容词或谓语名词描述主语的方式相同。

With object complements, we don’t distinguish between the adjectives and the nouns that describe the direct object—they are all object complements if they appear after the direct object and describe it. 对于宾语补语，我们不区分描述直接宾语的形容词和名词——只要它们出现在直接宾语之后并描述它，就都是宾语补语。

Here are more examples: 再举一些例子：

We found the request unreasonable. The Court declared the law unconstitutional. The Court’s decision renders the issue null and void. 我们发现这个要求不合理。法院宣布该法律违宪。法院的决定使这个问题无效。

It’s important to distinguish object complements from other grammatical units. In the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence contains an object complement and the second sentence contains a different structure that is identified in the comment that follow: 区分宾语补语和其他语法单位很重要。在下面成对的句子中，第一个句子包含宾语补语，第二个句子包含一个不同的结构，如其后注释所标明：

They found Will irritable. They found Will at home. (At home is an adverbial prepositional phrase) 他们发现威尔烦躁不安。他们发现威尔在家里。（At home 是一个状语介词短语）

They made Bill an officer. They made Bill a cake. (In the second sentence, Bill is the indirect object; cake is a direct object.) 他们任命比尔当了军官。他们给比尔做了一个蛋糕。（在第二个句子中，Bill 是间接宾语；cake 是直接宾语。）

In everyday conversation, we often use the verbs have and get with object complements: 在日常对话中，我们经常把动词 have 和 get 与宾语补语一起使用：

I have the car ready. I will get the car ready. 我把车准备好了。我会把车准备好。

Reflexive pronouns, the ones that end in –self (e.g., *himself, * herself, themselves) are often the direct objects that appear with object complements: 反身代词是以 –self 结尾的代词（例如 himself、herself、themselves），它们常常是带有宾语补语的直接宾语：

We got ourselves ready. He imagined himself successful. 我们让自己准备好了。他想象自己成功了。

We’ll discuss those pronouns in Chapter 19. 我们将在第 19 章讨论这些代词。

Object complements never appear in a clause that also contains an indirect object. They can only appear when there are direct objects in the same clause, and only a small number of transitive verbs can take object complements. 宾语补语绝不会出现在同时含有间接宾语的从句中。它们只能出现在同一从句中有直接宾语的情况下，而且只有少数及物动词可以带宾语补语。

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者的建议

As we’ve said, when we use a personal pronoun as a direct object or an indirect object, it has to be in the objective case. In these sentences, the underlined direct and indirect objects are objective case pronouns: 正如我们所说，当我们把人称代词用作直接宾语或间接宾语时，它必须处于宾格。在下面的句子中，带下划线的直接宾语和间接宾语都是宾格代词：

They gave me the job. (Me is the indirect object.) We will find her immediately. (Her is the direct object.) You must tell them the news. (Them is the indirect object.) She has just informed us. (Us is the direct object.) 他们把工作给了我。（Me 是间接宾语。）我们会马上找到她。（Her 是直接宾语。）你必须把这个消息告诉他们。（Them 是间接宾语。）她刚刚通知了我们。（Us 是直接宾语。）

With predicate nominatives, which appear after linking verbs, the situation is a bit more complicated. Consider these versions of the same sentences: 对于出现在系动词后面的谓语名词，情况要复杂一些。请看同一句子的这些版本：

The person responsible is he. The person responsible is him. 应负责任的人是 he（他，主格）。应负责任的人是 him（他，宾格）。

It is I. It is me. 是我（I，主格）。是我（me，宾格）。

Most of us would instinctively use the second version in each pair, because we’re accustomed to using objective-case pronouns after a verb. 我们大多数人会本能地在每对句子中使用第二个版本，因为我们习惯于在动词后面使用宾格代词。

But the verb in these sentences, is, is a linking verb, and that makes he (and him) and I (and me) predicate nominatives. In the judgment of those writers and editors most careful about prescriptive grammar, we should use nominative case pronouns as predicate nominatives, because the pronoun is being equated with the subject: It is I. It is he. It is annoying. 但是这些句子中的动词 is 是系动词，这使得 he（和 him）以及 I（和 me）成为谓语名词。在那些对规定性语法最严谨的作家和编辑看来，我们应该使用主格代词作为谓语名词，因为该代词与主语等同：It is I.（是我。）It is he.（是他。）这很让人恼火。

Here again, the choices you make will depend on your editor, your audience, and the formality of your tone. It’s often possible to rewrite the sentence to avoid the issue altogether. 在这里，你所做的选择将取决于你的编辑、你的读者以及你语气的正式程度。通常可以通过改写句子来完全避免这个问题。

EXERCISES

练习题

8a. In the following sentences, fill in the blanks with one word: *always, never, *or sometimes. (This is tougher than you might think. Feel free to look back at the chapter to work out the answers.) 8a. 在下面的句子中，用一个词填空：always（总是）、never（从不）或 sometimes（有时）。（这比你想象的要难。可以回头查看本章内容来得出答案。）

1. Sentences with action verbs ______ have a complement.

2. 含有行为动词的句子______有补语。

3. Sentences with linking verbs _______ have a complement.

4. 含有系动词的句子______有补语。

5. Sentences with intransitive verbs _______ have a complement.

6. 含有不及物动词的句子______有补语。

7. Sentences with transitive verbs _______ have a complement.

8. 含有及物动词的句子______有补语。

9. Sentences with transitive verbs _______ have a direct object.

10. 含有及物动词的句子______有直接宾语。

11. Sentences with transitive verbs _______ have an indirect object.

12. 含有及物动词的句子______有间接宾语。

13. Sentences with linking verbs _______ have a predicate nominative.

14. 含有系动词的句子______有谓语名词。

15. Sentences with transitive verbs _______ have a predicate adjective.

16. 含有及物动词的句子______有谓语形容词。

17. Sentences with linking verbs _______ have a predicate adjective.

18. 含有系动词的句子______有谓语形容词。

19. Sentences with transitive verbs _______ have an object complement.

20. 含有及物动词的句子______有宾语补语。

21. Sentences with linking verbs _______ have an object complement.

22. 含有系动词的句子______有宾语补语。

23. Sentences with linking verbs _______ have a direct object.

24. 含有系动词的句子______有直接宾语。

8b. In the sentences below, identify the complements and classify them as a direct object, an indirect object, a predicate adjective, a predicate nominative, or an object complement. These simple sentences may have as many as two complements, but never more than two. 8b. 在下面的句子中，识别补语并将其归类为直接宾语、间接宾语、谓语形容词、谓语名词或宾语补语。这些简单句可能含有多达两个补语，但绝不会超过两个。

In some sentences, the complements are underlined. In others, there are no complements. 在有些句子中，补语带有下划线。在另一些句子中，则没有补语。

1. My daughter made me proud.

2. 我女儿让我感到骄傲。

3. My aunt brought me a souvenir.

4. 我姑姑给我带了一件纪念品。

5. My sister is late.

6. 我姐姐迟到了。

7. Both my sisters are teachers.

8. 我的两个姐姐都是教师。

9. Both my sisters are arriving at noon.

10. 我的两个姐姐中午到达。

11. Six hours a day, Ruthie practices the accordion.

12. 露西每天练习手风琴六个小时。

13. Ruthie practices for hours every day.

14. 露西每天练习好几个小时。

15. We sent Bill and Sue a gift.

16. 我们给比尔和苏寄了一份礼物。

17. They were kind and grateful.

18. 他们既善良又感激。

19. I will address that issue at another time.

20. 我将在另一个时间处理那个问题。

21. That fellow became our assistant.

22. 那个家伙成了我们的助手。

23. Bonnie bought Ed that painting.

24. 邦妮给埃德买了那幅画。

8c. Now go back through the sentences above and identify the verbs as linking, transitive, or intransitive. 8c. 现在回头看上面的句子，把动词归类为系动词、及物动词或不及物动词。

团聚时刻：连词、复合结构与从句

Like prepositions, conjunctions are connecting words. Broadly defined, conjunctions join one word or group of words with a similar word or group of words. There are two kinds. 像介词一样，连词是连接词。广义地说，连词把一个词或一组词与另一个相似的词或一组词连接起来。连词有两类。

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

并列连词

Coordinating conjunctions create** compound structures**: They connect two or more grammatically equivalent units of lan- guage: a word with a word, a phrase with a phrase, or one sentence with another sentence. In the below sentences, and is the coordi- nating conjunction: 并列连词构成复合结构：它们连接两个或多个语法上等价的语言单位：词与词、短语与短语，或一个句子与另一个句子。在下面的句子中，and 是并列连词：

I gave him time and money. (noun and noun) I gave promptly and generously. (adverb and adverb) The white and blue car is there. (adjective and adjective) We saw Ed and told him the news. (predicate and predicate) 我给了他时间和金钱。（名词和名词）我给得迅速而慷慨。（副词和副词）那辆蓝白相间的车在那儿。（形容词和形容词）我们看到了埃德并把消息告诉了他。（谓语和谓语）

Here are a few sentences with compound subjects. The conjunctions (and and or) are in bold, and one of the sentences contains a three-part compound subject: 下面是几个带有复合主语的句子。连词（and 和 or）以粗体显示，其中一个句子包含由三部分组成的复合主语：

You or I have to clean up this mess. 你或我得把这烂摊子收拾干净。

Mark Twain, Damon Runyon, and J.R.R. Tolkien are three of Sam’s favorite authors. 马克·吐温、达蒙·鲁尼恩和 J.R.R. 托尔金是萨姆最喜欢的三位作家。

All the king’s horses and all the king’s men are having egg sandwiches. 国王所有的马和所有的人都正在吃鸡蛋三明治。

These sentences contain compound verbs: 这些句子包含复合动词：

We hiked, swam and sailed until dark. 我们徒步、游泳并航行直到天黑。

You can behave or leave. 你可以守规矩或者离开。

I will sit and think and write all afternoon. 我会坐下来并思考并写一整个下午。

Here are sentences with compound prepositional phrases: 下面是带有复合介词短语的句子：

We can’t find the dog in the house or in the yard. 我们在房子里或院子里都找不到那只狗。

In the spring, through the summer, and into the fall, we work in the garden. 在春天、穿过夏天并进入秋天，我们在花园里劳作。

You can combine any of these structures into a single sentence, using (for example) a compound subject, a compound verb, and a compound predicate: 你可以把这些结构中的任意几种组合到一个句子里，例如使用复合主语、复合动词和复合谓语：

Jim and Sue planned and prepared the meal and cleaned up afterward. 吉姆和苏计划、并准备了饭菜并事后收拾干净。

All the compound structures above depend on just two coordinating conjunctions: and and or. In fact, there are only seven coordinating conjunctions in English, so it’s convenient to memorize them: 上面所有的复合结构都只依赖两个并列连词：and 和 or。事实上，英语中只有七个并列连词，所以把它们记住很方便：

for but and or nor yet so

There’s a well-known mnemonic (a memory trick) for remem- bering these conjunctions: The first letters of these seven words spell the word FANBOYS. 有一个著名的助记法（记忆技巧）来记住这些连词：这七个单词的首字母拼成了 FANBOYS 这个词。

THE CLAUSE AND THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

从句与复合句

Now we come to one of the most important terms in grammar: the clause. For our purposes in this chapter, we’ll use this definition: 现在我们来看语法中最重要的术语之一：从句。就本章而言，我们使用如下定义：

A clause is a unit of language that contains one subject and one predicate. 从句是包含一个主语和一个谓语的语言单位。

And yes, that definition sounds a good deal like our earlier tentative definition of a sentence. There’s overlap between the two definitions for a simple reason: Any complete sentence contains at least one clause. 是的，这个定义听起来很像我们之前对句子的初步定义。这两个定义有重叠，原因很简单：任何完整的句子都至少包含一个从句。

The seven coordinating conjunctions (the FANBOYS conjunc- tions) can join two or more clauses to create a larger structure called a compound sentence. To make the compound sentence, we select the conjunction that best communicates the relationship between the two clauses. 七个并列连词（FANBOYS 连词）可以把两个或多个从句连接起来，构成一个更大的结构，称为复合句。要构成复合句，我们要选择最能表达两个从句之间关系的连词。

For example, each of the following is a complete sentence and also a single clause: 例如，下面每一句都是一个完整的句子，同时也是一个单独的从句：

You will have to behave yourself. You will have to leave. 你必须守规矩。你将不得不离开。

With a coordinating conjunction, we can combine these two sentences into one sentence that contains two clauses: 用并列连词，我们可以把这两个句子合并成一个包含两个从句的句子：

You will have to behave yourself, or you will have to leave. 你必须守规矩，否则你将不得不离开。

The following are more compound sentences, made by com- bining two clauses—the last sentence contains three clauses—all joined by coordinating conjunctions: 下面是更多复合句，由连接两个从句构成——最后一个句子包含三个从句——全部由并列连词连接：

You have to leave, for you are not behaving yourself. 你必须离开，因为你没在守规矩。

You are not behaving yourself, so you will have to leave. 你没在守规矩，所以你将不得不离开。

Now you’re behaving, but you have to leave anyway. 现在你守规矩了，但是你无论如何都得离开。

You’re behaving now, yet you have to leave, and you can’t come back. 你现在守规矩了，然而你还是得离开，而且你不能回来。

(You’d be amazed how often people say things like that to grammar teachers.) （你会惊讶于人们竟如此频繁地对语法老师说出这样的话。）

The coordinating conjunction *nor, *when used to construct a compound sentence, is a bit unusual: It requires a negative word (such as not) in the first clause, and it often requires a special word order in the second clause. Nor makes an auxiliary verb move to a position before the subject: 并列连词 nor 在用于构成复合句时有点不寻常：它要求第一个从句中有否定词（如 not），并且通常要求第二个从句中有特殊的词序。nor 会使助动词移到主语之前的位置：

We do not want you to stay, nor do we want you to return. You may not stay, nor may you return. 我们不希望你留下，也不希望你能回来。你不可以留下，也不可以回来。

In these examples, nor makes the auxiliaries do and may shift to the left of the subjects (we and you). 在这些例子中，nor 使助动词 do 和 may 移到主语（we 和 you）的左边。

CORRELATIVE COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

关联并列连词

Correlatives are a special subclass of coordinating conjunctions. There are only four: 关联词是并列连词的一个特殊子类。只有四个：

Either . . . or Neither . . . nor Both . . . and Not only . . . but also

As you see, these correlative coordinating conjunctions consist of two parts, and the second part always contains one of the FANBOYS conjunctions: *or, nor, and, *or but. You’ve probably used them many times: 如你所见，这些关联并列连词由两部分组成，第二部分总是包含 FANBOYS 连词中的一个：or、nor、and 或 but。你可能已经用过很多次了：

Either Fred or George should clean up their mess. Neither Fred nor George cleaned up their mess. Both Fred and George are jerks. Fred and George are not only jerks, but also idiots. 要么弗雷德要么乔治应该收拾他们的烂摊子。弗雷德和乔治都没有收拾他们的烂摊子。弗雷德和乔治都是混蛋。弗雷德和乔治不仅是混蛋，还是白痴。

(Correlative conjunctions are very useful.) The correlatives work in other compound structures, like compound predicates: （关联连词非常有用。）关联词也适用于其他复合结构，如复合谓语：

Fred and George both need to straighten up and fly right. 弗雷德和乔治都需要改过自新并好好做人。

And *either . . . or *can join clauses to make compound sentences: 而 either . . . or 可以连接从句构成复合句：

Either Fred and George must behave, or they must go. 要么弗雷德和乔治必须守规矩，要么他们必须走。

Use not only . . . but also carefully. Inexperienced writers use the structure too often, or in ways that seem to imply that the first part of the compound structure is less important than the second portion. The writer may not intend to suggest that in these sentences: 使用 not only . . . but also 要小心。缺乏经验的写作者使用这种结构过于频繁，或者在使用方式上似乎暗示复合结构的第一部分不如第二部分重要。写作者可能并不想在下面的句子中表达这种意思：

She is not only a physician, but also a classical violinist. He is not only a Lutheran minister, but also a professional wrestler. 她不仅是一名内科医生，还是一名古典小提琴手。他不仅是一名路德教牧师，还是一名职业摔跤手。

If we don’t want to minimize the importance of being a physician or a minister, we should rewrite these sentences and leave out the not only part: 如果我们不想贬低当医生或牧师的重要性，就应该改写这些句子，去掉 not only 部分：

She is both a physician and a classical violinist. He is a Lutheran minister, and he is also a professional wrestler. 她既是一名内科医生，也是一名古典小提琴手。他是一名路德教牧师，而且他也是一名职业摔跤手。

The first sentence uses the correlative coordinating conjunction both . . . also. In the second sentence, *and *is simply a coordinating conjunction accompanied by the adverb also. 第一个句子使用了关联并列连词 both . . . also（注：原文如此，通常作 both . . . and）。在第二个句子中，and 只是一个并列连词，伴随副词 also。

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

从属连词

The second group of conjunctions are the** subordinating ** conjunctions, which are the larger group. (See what we did there? We used the comparative adjective.) There are about thirty or so. 第二类连词是从属连词，这一类数量更多。（看到我们刚才做了什么吗？我们用了比较级形容词。）大约有三十个左右。

These conjunctions are used to connect one clause to another to make a single longer sentence with two or more clauses. The new sentence has qualities that we don’t find in the compound sentences created by coordinating conjunctions. 这些连词用于把一个从句与另一个从句连接起来，构成一个含有两个或多个从句的更长句子。新句子具有我们在并列连词构成的复合句中找不到的特性。

The subordinating conjunction always appears at the beginning of one of the clauses. The clause begun this way is a subordinate ** clause. 从属连词总是出现在一个从句的开头。以这种方式开始的从句是一个从句**（subordinate clause，即从句/从属分句）。

Lists of the subordinating conjunctions vary from one gram- mar book to another, but the following list is reasonably complete. These are the one-word subordinating conjunctions: 从属连词的列表因语法书而异，但下面的列表相当完整。这些是单字从属连词：

after once when although since whenever as than where because that wherever before though whereas however till whether if unless while lest until

The following sentences each contain one subordinate clause; the conjunction is in bold: 下面的每个句子都包含一个从句；连词以粗体显示：

He left because he wanted to leave. I’ll go when I’m ready. We’ll let you know if she calls. I will find you wherever you go. 他离开是因为他想离开。我会在我准备好时去。如果她打电话，我们会通知你。无论你去哪里，我都会找到你。

Subordinate clauses are always adverbial, and they typically modify the verb, so they can often be moved around the sentence. They can be placed at the beginning or the end of the sentence: 从句总是作状语，并且通常修饰动词，所以它们常常可以在句子中移动。它们可以放在句子的开头或结尾：

Because he wanted to leave, he left. When I’m ready, I’ll go. If she calls, we’ll let you know. Wherever you go, I will find you. 因为他想离开，他离开了。当我准备好时，我会去。如果她打电话，我们会通知你。无论你去哪里，我都会找到你。

Notice that you can’t do the same thing with clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions. You can certainly use a coordinating conjunction to join two independent clauses: 注意，你不能用并列连词连接的从句做同样的事。你当然可以用并列连词连接两个独立从句：

He was ready to leave, so he left. 他准备好离开了，所以他离开了。

But you can’t move the second clause (including the conjunc- tion) to the beginning of the sentence: 但是你不能把第二个从句（包括连词）移到句子的开头：

WRONG: So he left, he was ready to leave. 错误：所以他离开了，他准备好离开了。

The movability of subordinate clauses is a useful feature. It helps us identify them, and it gives writers more stylistic options in constructing sentences. 从句的可移动性是一个有用的特征。它帮助我们识别从句，并为写作者在构句时提供更多的风格选择。

In some cases, it’s also possible to move the subordinate clause to the middle of the other clause, like this: 在某些情况下，也可以把从句移到另一个从句的中间，像这样：

Fred and George, because they are idiots, are no longer welcome here. 弗雷德和乔治，因为他们是白痴，在这里不再受欢迎。

Notice that in these cases, the subordinate clause is typically enclosed by a pair of commas. This placement of the subordinate clause, because it is unusual, is emphatic, so use it carefully. 注意，在这种情况下，从句通常被一对逗号括起来。这种从句的位置因为不常见，所以是强调性的，因此要小心使用。

Some subordinating conjunctions are more than one word: *as * if, as though, so that. 有些从属连词不止一个词：as if（好像）、as though（仿佛）、so that（以便）。

You should act as if you know what you’re doing. You should speak as though you know what you’re talking about. He took the job so that he could include it on his résumé. 你应该表现得好像你知道自己在做什么。你应该说话仿佛你知道自己在说什么。他接受这份工作以便能把它写进简历。

Though these clauses modify the verb, they are not moveable. 虽然这些从句修饰动词，但它们不可移动。

Some grammars include *even though among the subordinate conjunctions, as in We’re mentioning this even though you’ve * probably had enough conjunctions. An even though clause is generally moveable. 有些语法书把 even though（即使）也列入从属连词，例如我们在提这个，即使你可能已经受够连词了。even though 从句通常是可移动的。

THAT DARNED THAT

那该死的 that

One of the most troublesome subordinating conjunctions in the list above is that. It’s not complicated, but *that *is used in many different ways, not just as a conjunction. We’ll look at those uses in future chapters. 上面列表中最棘手的从属连词之一是 that。它并不复杂，但 that 有许多不同的用法，不仅仅是作为连词。我们将在后面的章节中考察这些用法。

For now, consider these subordinate that clauses, and notice that they are all adverbial, but not moveable. 目前，请考虑这些 that 从句，并注意它们都是状语性的，但不可移动。

I am confident that I will win. I am happy that you can be with us. We were sad that you lost. 我有信心我会赢。我很高兴你能和我们在一起。我们很难过你输了。

These clauses are adverbial but not because they modify the verb. Instead, they modify the adjectives (confident, happy, sad) in each sentence. 这些从句是状语性的，但不是因为它们修饰动词。相反，它们修饰每个句子中的形容词（confident、happy、sad）。

MORE CORRELATIVES

更多关联词

There are also correlative subordinating conjunctions: 还有关联从属连词：

as . . . as so . . . that the . . . the

We use these pairs of words to create adverbial clauses modifying only adverbs or adjectives. In the following sentence, the subordinate clause modifies adverbs: 我们用这些成对词语来构成只修饰副词或形容词的状语从句。在下面的句子中，从句修饰副词：

I’ll be there as** soon as I can. (Modifying soon.) They traveled as far as they could. (Modifying far.) 我会尽快到达那里。（修饰 soon。）他们尽可能远地**旅行。（修饰 far。）

The as . . . as correlative can modify many adverbs (e.g., *as * long as, as quickly as, as surely as) and adjectives—*as many as * you like. as . . . as 关联词可以修饰许多副词（如 as long as、as quickly as、as surely as）和形容词——as many as（尽可能多）你喜欢。

Here are examples of so . . . that, modifying adjectives: 下面是 so . . . that 修饰形容词的例子：

He was so** impatient that he slammed the door. (Modifying impatient.) 他是如此**不耐烦，以至于他摔了门。（修饰 impatient。）

We were so weary that we slept all afternoon. (Modifying weary.) 我们是如此疲惫，以至于睡了整个下午。（修饰 weary。）

The strangest conjunction of all is surely the . . . the, based on the occasional adverbial use of the (as in *He is the worse for * wear): 最奇怪的连词肯定是 the . . . the，它基于 the 偶尔作状语的用法（如 He is the worse for wear，他因磨损而更糟）：

The** more he does that, the less I like him. (Modifying the adverb more) 他那样做得越多**，我越不喜欢他。（修饰副词 more）

The bigger they are, the faster I run. (Modifying the adjective bigger) 他们越大，我跑得越快。（修饰形容词 bigger）

These subordinate clauses are not moveable. 这些从句不可移动。

DISTINGUISHING CONJUNCTIONS FROM

PREPOSITIONS

区分连词与

介词

A few conjunctions are identical to prepositions. The only way to distinguish these prepositions from the identical conjunctions is the context: If the word in question is followed by a clause, it’s a conjunction. If the word in question is followed by a noun phrase or a pronoun, it’s a preposition. 有少数连词与介词完全相同。区分这些介词与相同形式的连词的唯一方法是看语境：如果所讨论的词后面跟的是一个从句，它就是连词；如果所讨论的词后面跟的是名词短语或代词，它就是介词。

Prepositions that resemble coordinating conjunctions are but * (meaning except*)* and for: 与并列连词相似的介词是 but（意为除了*）和 for：

Preposition: No one can go but her. I brought the gift for this child. 介词：除了她没人能去。我给这个孩子带了礼物。

Conjunction: He left, but he came back. He left, for it was late. 连词：他离开了，但他回来了。他离开了，因为天晚了。

Some prepositions also resemble subordinating conjunctions, like *before, after, until, since, *and as: 有些介词也类似于从属连词，如 before、after、until、since 和 as：

Preposition: Come back before [or after] sunset. Don’t come back until nine. He hasn’t come back since nine. He is known as Jim. 介词：在日落[或日落之后]之前回来。九点之前别回来。九点之后他还没回来。他以吉姆之名为人所知。

Conjunction: Come back before [or after] Jim returns. He does that until he falls down. He hasn’t come back since he graduated. He juggles as he rides a unicycle. 连词：在吉姆回来[或之后]之前回来。他一直那样做直到他倒下。自从他毕业之后他还没回来。他一边骑独轮车一边抛接球。

In every case, a noun follows the preposition and a clause follows the conjunction. 在任何情况下，介词后面跟名词，连词后面跟从句。

TWO KINDS OF CLAUSES

两类从句

The conjunctions we’ve been examining require us to work with two different kinds of clauses, and now we need to make the distinction clear: 我们一直在考察的连词要求我们使用两类不同的从句，现在我们需要把区别说清楚：

An** independent clause** contains at least one subject and at least one predicate, and it contains no word that makes the clause dependent on another clause to be complete. That is, it contains no word like a subordinating conjunction. An independent clause is grammatically complete by itself, without the addition of other clauses, so it can stand by itself as a complete sentence. When you encounter the term main clause, that’s simply another term for an independent clause. 独立从句至少包含一个主语和至少一个谓语，并且它不含任何使该从句依赖另一个从句才能完整的词。也就是说，它不含像从属连词这样的词。独立从句在语法上自身是完整的，不需要添加其他从句，因此它可以作为一个完整的句子独立存在。当你遇到术语主句（main clause）时，那只是独立从句的另一种说法。

When we combine two or more independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, we’ve created a compound sentence. 当我们用并列连词把两个或多个独立从句组合起来时，我们就构成了一个复合句。

A** dependent clause** contains at least one subject and at least one predicate, and it is not grammatically complete by itself. When a dependent clause appears in a sentence, it functions as part of an independent clause. 从属从句至少包含一个主语和至少一个谓语，并且它在语法上自身不完整。当从属从句出现在句子中时，它作为独立从句的一部分发挥作用。

According to these definitions, this is an independent clause: 根据这些定义，下面是一个独立从句：

We went to the museum. 我们去了博物馆。

But if we add a subordinating conjunction to it, it’s a dependent clause that needs to be connected to another clause: 但如果我们给它加上一个从属连词，它就成了一个需要与另一个从句连接的从属从句：

After we went to the museum . . . 在我们去了博物馆之后……

One kind of dependent clause is a** subordinate clause. It contains at least one subject and one predicate and it’s connected to an independent clause by a subordinating conjunction. As you know by now, the example clause above (After we went to the museum . . .) is a subordinate clause. 从属从句的一种是从句**（subordinate clause）。它至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，并且通过从属连词与独立从句连接。正如你现在所知道的，上面的例句（After we went to the museum . . .）就是一个从句。

Notice the difference between dependent clauses and subordinate clauses: Subordinate clauses are one subcategory of dependent clauses. This is a distinction that some grammar books, language textbooks, and dictionaries don’t make. 注意从属从句与从句之间的区别：从句是从属从句的一个子类。这是一些语法书、语言教材和词典没有做出的区分。

We’ll learn about other kinds of dependent clauses in the next few chapters. 在接下来的几章中，我们将学习其他类型的从属从句。

ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES

省略从句

In all kinds of ways, English sentences can contain elliptical ** clauses, sentences that often leave out words that are implied in context, as in [You must] Get out! Questions are also sometimes elliptical: Why me? (That is, *Why *[do these things happen to] me?) Elliptical structures help writers write concisely: *You are * more ambitious than I [am]. 英语句子可以通过各种方式包含省略从句**——这些句子常常省略掉在语境中隐含的词，如[You must] Get out!（滚出去！）。疑问句有时也是省略的：Why me?（为什么是我？）（也就是说，*Why [do these things happen to] me?，为什么这种事发生在我身上？）省略结构帮助写作者简洁地写作：You are more ambitious than I [am].（你比我更有野心。）

In elliptical clauses, we simply omit certain words that we need grammatically because they are—in that particular context— clearly implied. The missing words are often said to be understood; that is, the reader understands that certain words have been omitted for brevity. 在省略从句中，我们只是省略某些语法上需要的词，因为——在那个特定语境中——它们被明确暗示了。缺失的词常被说成是可理解的（understood）；也就是说，读者明白为了简洁而省略了某些词。

When we’re analyzing an elliptical clause, we insert the missing words because they’re necessary for the grammatical 当我们分析省略从句时，我们要插入缺失的词，因为它们对句子的语法

completeness of the sentence, though the meaning of the sentence is clear without them. 完整性是必要的，尽管没有它们句子的意思也清楚。

Here are some examples, all well-known proverbs: 下面是一些例子，都是著名的谚语：

When in doubt, punt. (John Heismann) When in doubt, don’t. (Benjamin Franklin) When in doubt, tell the truth. (Mark Twain) 如有疑问，踢悬空球。（John Heismann）如有疑问，别做。（本杰明·富兰克林）如有疑问，说真话。（马克·吐温）

If we rewrote these by making the implicit words explicit, they might read like this: 如果我们把这些隐含的词明确写出来，它们可能会是这样：

When [you are] in doubt, [you should] punt. When [you are] in doubt, [you] don’t [do what you were considering]. When [you are] in doubt, [you should] tell the truth. 当[你]有疑问[时]，[你应当]踢悬空球。当[你]有疑问[时]，[你]别[做你正在考虑的事]。当[你]有疑问[时]，[你应当]说真话。

Elliptical clauses are not fragment sentences, though they are often missing subjects, or part of their predicates: 省略从句不是碎片句，尽管它们常常缺失主语，或缺失部分谓语：

We are going, [whether you] like it or not. Whatever the situation [may be], he is uncooperative. If [it is] necessary, we will speak to him. [Money is] here today, [and] gone tomorrow. 我们要走了，[无论你]喜不喜欢。无论情况[可能]怎样，他都不合作。如果[这]有必要，我们会和他谈谈。[钱]今天在此，[而]明天就走了。

In the following examples, the subject in the subordinate clauses is missing, but it is similar or identical to the subject in the independent clauses: 在下面的例子中，从句中的主语缺失，但它与独立从句中的主语相似或相同：

While [we were] looking for your book, we found your lost keys. When [you are] traveling, you must keep your belongings secure. She likes him better than [she likes] me. 当[我们]寻找你的书时，我们找到了你丢失的钥匙。当[你]旅行时，你必须保管好你的财物。她比[她喜欢]我更喜欢他。

The correlative subordinating conjunction as . . . as can create similar elliptical structures: 关联从属连词 as . . . as 可以构成类似的省略结构：

She likes him as much as [she likes] me. He dances as well as she [dances]. 她喜欢他[的程度]和[她喜欢]我一样多。他跳舞跳得和她[跳舞]一样好。

And now [we’ll have] one more [elliptical sentence] for the road, from J. K. Rowling: 现在[我们再来]一句[省略句]作为临别赠言，来自 J. K. 罗琳：

When in doubt, go to the library. 如有疑问，去图书馆。

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者的建议

1. Variations on compound structures.

1. 复合结构的变体。

Sometimes writers choose to omit the conjunction (usually and) from compound structures. Carefully used, this unusual practice can make the compound structures more emphatic. Consider these series of compounds: 有时写作者会选择从复合结构中省略连词（通常是 and）。如果使用得当，这种不寻常的做法可以使复合结构更有强调意味。请看这些复合系列：

This project will require hard work, unwavering attention, total dedication. 这个项目将需要艰苦的工作、坚定的专注、全部的奉献。

“. . . government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” “……民有、民治、民享的政府，不会从地球上消亡。”

Be warned: If you overuse this variation, it ceases to be effective and, instead, becomes distracting or even pointless. 警告：如果你过度使用这种变体，它会失去效果，反而变得分散注意力甚至毫无意义。

Another variation is to use the conjunction and to join each part of a compound structure with the next part, to emphasize that all the parts are of equal importance: 另一种变体是用连词 and 把复合结构的每一部分与下一部分连接起来，以强调所有部分同等重要：

This project will require hard work and unwavering attention and total dedication. 这个项目将需要艰苦的工作和坚定的专注和全部的奉献。

Again, don’t overuse this pattern. 同样，不要过度使用这种句式。

Sometimes, when we have several compound sentences, we can improve sentence variety by omitting the conjunction in a two-clause sentence and replacing it with a semicolon: 有时，当我们有几个复合句时，可以通过在双从句句中省略连词并用分号代替来改善句子的多样性：

Luis excels at school, for he devotes many hours every week to studying. Luis excels at school**;** he devotes many hours every week to studying. 路易斯在学校表现出色，因为他每周投入很多小时学习。路易斯在学校表现出色**；**他每周投入很多小时学习。

You’ve probably noticed in your reading that just one coordi- nating conjunction can create a compound sentence of three, four, or more independent clauses: 你可能在阅读中注意到，仅仅一个并列连词就可以构成含有三个、四个或更多独立从句的复合句：

A single coordinating conjunction can unite a sentence of two clauses, it can create a sentence of three or four clauses, and in rare cases it is used in a sentence of five clauses or more. 一个并列连词可以连接两个从句的句子，它可以构成三个或四个从句的句子，而且在极少数情况下，它用于五个或更多从句的句子。

2. Compound subjects and verb agreement.

2. 复合主语与动词一致。

Compound subjects take singular or plural verbs, depending on the conjunction or, in some cases, the right-most subject. Look at these three examples: 复合主语使用单数或复数动词，取决于连词，或者在某些情况下，取决于最右边的主语。请看这三个例子：

Bob and Ray are here. Either Bob or Ray is your assistant. Either Bob or the twins are your assistants. 鲍勃和雷在这里。要么鲍勃要么雷是你的助手。要么鲍勃要么那对双胞胎是你的助手。

The and in the first example means that the subject, Bob and Ray, is plural, so you need a plural verb: are. 第一个例子中的 and 意味着主语 Bob and Ray 是复数，所以你需要复数动词：are。

The or in the second example means that the subject, *Bob or * Ray, is singular—either Bob or Ray—so you need the singular verb: is. 第二个例子中的 or 意味着主语 Bob or Ray 是单数——either Bob or Ray——所以你需要单数动词：is。

In the third example, the plural subject, twins, is the subject closest to the verb. In this case, you need the plural verb, are. If the 在第三个例子中，复数主语 twins 是离动词最近的主语。在这种情况下，你需要复数动词 are。如果

compound subject were reversed—either the twins or Bob—the verb would be singular: is. 复合主语被倒过来——either the twins or Bob——动词就会是单数：is。

So the third example is grammatically correct, but it sounds awkward to many readers. We can usually improve a sentence like this by rewriting it: 所以第三个例子在语法上是正确的，但对许多读者来说听起来很别扭。我们通常可以通过改写来改善这样的句子：

BETTER: Either Bob or the twins will assist you. 更好：要么鲍勃要么双胞胎会帮助你。

3. So that.

3. So that（以便）。

In casual conversation and writing, we often use so by itself as an intensifier before an adjective or adverb to mean very or really: 在随意的对话和写作中，我们经常单独使用 so 作为形容词或副词前的强调词，意为非常或真的：

He was so angry. She ran so fast. 他非常生气。她跑得飞快。

In formal writing and speaking, this is often regarded as a mistake, because so, used this way, requires a that clause to finish the idea: 在正式的写作和说话中，这常被视为错误，因为这样使用的 so 需要一个 that 从句来完成意思：

He was so angry that he couldn’t speak. She ran so fast that she outdistanced all the other runners. 他是如此生气，以至于说不出话来。她跑得如此之快，以至于把其他所有跑者都甩在后面。

The that clause enables us to clarify how angry he was, or how fast she was. When we leave it out, we’ve failed to finish the idea. that 从句使我们能够澄清他有多生气，或她有多快。当我们省略它时，我们就没能完成这个意思。

Write so carefully that no one can accuse you of carelessness— unless you’re deliberately seeking a casual, more conversational style. 把 so 写得小心些，以至于没有人能指责你粗心——除非你刻意追求一种随意、更口语化的风格。

4. Conjunctive adverbs.

4. 连接副词。

We often use the following phrases in our reading, writing, and speaking: 我们在阅读、写作和说话中经常使用以下短语：

therefore however moreover nevertheless thus hence indeed in fact likewise in contrast

These phrases and many like them (e.g., *after all, as a result, * consequently, furthermore, instead, meanwhile, on the contrary, still, then) indicate some connection between the clauses they appear in and previous clauses: 这些短语以及许多类似的短语（如 after all、as a result、consequently、furthermore、instead、meanwhile、on the contrary、still、then）表明它们所在的从句与前面的从句之间有某种联系：

She has been late three times this week; therefore**,** I don’t consider her reliable. He has been late three times this week; however, he is usually reliable. 她这周迟到三次；因此**，**我认为她不可靠。他这周迟到三次；然而，他通常是可靠的。

These are conjunctive adverbs: They are adverbs that vaguely resemble conjunctions, because they indicate a relationship between the ideas of two clauses. But they are not conjunctions. They can’t—by themselves—join the two clauses into a compound or complex sentence. That is, the connection indicated by conjunctive adverbs is one of ideas, not grammatical structure. 这些是连接副词：它们是副词，模糊地类似于连词，因为它们表明两个从句之间的思想关系。但它们不是连词。它们单靠自己不能把两个从句连接成一个复合句或复杂句。也就是说，连接副词所表明的联系是思想上的，而非语法结构上的。

They are sometimes called transitional adverbs, and we use them to build paragraph coherence by signaling the connections among the sentences. 它们有时被称为过渡副词，我们用它们通过标示句子之间的联系来构建段落连贯性。

This affects punctuation. Notice the use of semi-colons—not commas—above. In each example, we could use periods instead of semi-colons and make two separate sentences. In that case, the second sentence in each example could still contain the conjunctive adverbs. 这影响标点。注意上面使用的是分号——而不是逗号。在每个例子中，我们都可以用句号代替分号，构成两个独立的句子。在那种情况下，每个例子中的第二个句子仍然可以包含连接副词。

We can tell that these words are adverbs and not conjunctions because they are moveable in many contexts: 我们可以判断这些词是副词而不是连词，因为它们在许多语境中是可以移动的：

He has been late three times this week; however, he is usually reliable. 他这周迟到三次；然而，他通常是可靠的。

He has been late three times this week; he is, however, usually reliable. 他这周迟到三次；他，然而，通常是可靠的。

We can’t move a true conjunction around in its clause as we can move these conjunctive adverbs. If however were a true subordinating conjunction, it would have to remain at the beginning of the clause it introduces. 我们不能像移动这些连接副词那样在从句中移动真正的连词。如果 however 是一个真正的从属连词，它就不得不留在它所引导的从句的开头。

Notice that in the second example above, the placement of however after *is *creates a pause that gives greater emphasis to the next words, usually reliable. 注意，在上面第二个例子中，however 放在 is 之后产生了一个停顿，使接下来的词 usually reliable 更受强调。

In other words, conjunctive adverbs have at least two stylistic uses: to indicate transition from one idea to the next, and (if carefully used) to emphasis words that follow the adverbs. 换句话说，连接副词至少有两种风格用途：标示从一个思想到下一个的过渡，以及（如果使用得当）强调副词后面的词。

However is sometimes used as an adverb in ways that are not conjunctive, such as an adverb modifying an adjective or adverb. In each of the cases below, the adjective or adverb in bold modifies a noun or verb before it (fine, children, or to run): However 有时用作非连接性的副词，例如修饰形容词或副词的副词。在下面每种情况下，粗体的形容词或副词修饰它前面的名词或动词（fine、children 或 to run）：

You must pay the fine, however unreasonable. School children, however young, can learn responsibility. She decided to run in the race, however slowly. 你必须交罚款，无论罚款多么不合理。学童，无论多年轻，也能学会责任。她决定参加比赛，无论跑得多慢。

We can also use however as a subordinating conjunction, which is why it’s in the list of conjunctions in this chapter: 我们也可以把 however 用作从属连词，这就是为什么它在本章的连词列表中：

We can rearrange this office however we wish. Apparently you can use however however you like. 我们可以按我们的意愿重新布置这个办公室。显然你可以随心所欲地使用 however。

These clauses are not moveable. 这些从句不可移动。

5. Compounds and concise writing.

5. 复合结构与简洁写作。

Compound structures help us achieve brevity in our writing. For example, with compounding, we can make one adjective modify several nouns: 复合结构帮助我们在写作中实现简洁。例如，通过复合，我们可以让一个形容词修饰多个名词：

In the trunk in the attic, we discovered old clothes, books, and photographs. 在阁楼的箱子里，我们发现了旧衣服、书籍和照片。

Or we can use one preposition to apply to several objects, or one adverb to apply to several verbs: 或者我们可以让一个介词适用于多个宾语，或一个副词适用于多个动词：

Mr. Benny is traveling to Anaheim, Azusa, and Cucamonga. We all eagerly dressed, packed, and departed. 本尼先生正在前往阿纳海姆、阿苏萨和库卡蒙加。我们都急切地穿衣、打包并出发。

6. Subtract the plus.

6. 去掉 plus（加）。

In your careful writing, don’t use plus as a replacement for and unless your context is mathematical, or metaphorically mathematical: 在你严谨的写作中，不要把 plus 用作 and 的替代品，除非你的语境是数学的，或比喻意义上的数学：

Hard work plus determination equal success. 努力工作加决心等于成功。

EXERCISES

练习题

9a. Try to write, from memory, the seven coordinating conjunc- tions. (A hint: Remember FANBOYS.) Check your answers with the list in this chapter. 9a. 试着凭记忆写出七个并列连词。（提示：记住 FANBOYS。）用本章的列表核对你的答案。

9b. Try to write, from memory, the four correlative coordinating conjunctions. Check your answers with the list in this chapter. 9b. 试着凭记忆写出四个关联并列连词。用本章的列表核对你的答案。

9c. Try to write, from memory, ten of the subordinating conjunc- tions, and consult the chapter to check your answers. 9c. 试着凭记忆写出十个从属连词，并参考本章核对你的答案。

9d. In the following sentences, underline and classify the conjunc- tions as coordinating (C) or subordinating (S) and put brackets around any prepositions. Refer to the lists in this chapter and the previous chapter if you need to. Classify correlative conjunctions as coordinating. 9d. 在下面的句子中，给连词加下划线并归类为并列连词（C）或从属连词（S），并用方括号把任何介词括起来。如果需要，请参考本章和前一章的列表。把关联连词归类为并列连词。

Here’s an example: 下面是一个例子：

C C [In] the following sentences, underline and classify the conjunctions [在]下面的句子中，给连词加下划线并分类 *** *** *** *** *** C *** *** *** *** C*** *** *** *** *** *** C *** *** *** *** C*** [as] coordinating or subordinating and put brackets [around] any [作为]并列或从属连词，并把方括号[加在]任何 prepositions. 介词周围。

1. The film was not only boring, but also offensive, so we asked for a refund and went home.

2. 这部电影不仅无聊，而且冒犯人，所以我们要求退款并回家了。

3. In the morning and again in the evening, Ruthie practices her violin until her mother can’t stand it anymore.

4. 早晨和傍晚，露西练习她的小提琴，直到她母亲再也无法忍受。

5. We went to the diner for lunch, for we were expected back soon.

6. 我们去小餐馆吃午饭，因为我们很快就要被盼回去了。

7. Because we are tired, we’ll take a short break before we continue studying.

8. 因为我们累了，我们会在继续学习之前短暂休息一下。

9. Fred and George have been gone since Friday night, since they took a “short break” from studying.

10. 弗雷德和乔治自从周五晚上就走了，因为他们从学习中抽了个"短假"。

11. After I finish this project, we can meet after work and discuss the project.

12. 在我完成这个项目之后，我们可以下班后见面并讨论这个项目。

13. Fred and George are neither punctual nor organized, yet they somehow do their work well.

14. 弗雷德和乔治既不守时也无条理，然而他们 somehow 把工作做得很好。

15. He was so confident that he underestimated his opponent.

16. 他如此自信，以至于低估了对手。

17. The room looked as if it had not been occupied in some time, but it had been occupied for days or weeks.

18. 房间看起来好像有一段时间没人住了，但它已经被占用好几天或几周了。

19. The longer he waited, the more impatient he became.

20. 他等得越久，就变得越不耐烦。

**9e. **In the following sentences, identify and label compound subjects, compound verbs, compound predicates, and other compound structures, but not clauses. There are no compound sentences. Not every sentence contains a compound. 9e. 在下面的句子中，识别并标注复合主语、复合动词、复合谓语和其他复合结构，但不包括从句。这里没有复合句。并非每个句子都包含复合结构。

1. Anne always fastens her seatbelt and locks her doors before she drives.

2. 安妮在开车前总是系好安全带并锁好车门。

3. Anne and James are driving to Nashville and Chattanooga.

4. 安妮和詹姆斯正开车去纳什维尔和查塔努加。

5. In Nashville, Anne shopped and visited her family.

6. 在纳什维尔，安妮购物并探望了家人。

7. She and I always enjoy Nashville, but seldom go there.

8. 她和我总是喜欢纳什维尔，但很少去那里。

9. The next day we will drive from Tennessee to Illinois.

10. 第二天我们将从田纳西开车去伊利诺伊。

11. In Illinois, we will visit the Lincoln Museum and the Lincoln Library.

12. 在伊利诺伊，我们将参观林肯博物馆和林肯图书馆。

13. We will stop in Wisconsin or Minnesota for the night.

14. 我们将在威斯康星或明尼苏达停留过夜。

15. In Minnesota we will ski and visit family.

16. 在明尼苏达我们将滑雪并探望家人。

17. Anne and her sister Alice love skiing.

18. 安妮和她的姐姐爱丽丝热爱滑雪。

19. In cold weather, James stays indoors and reads.

20. 在寒冷的天气里，詹姆斯待在室内并阅读。

造句：用从句构建句子

Previously, we’ve learned about conjunctions that join one clause to another. Now we can finally define some of the most important terms in grammar regarding clauses and sentences, and the subject is important enough that it merits a bit of repetition. 之前，我们已经学习了把一个从句与另一个从句连接起来的连词。现在，我们终于可以定义语法中关于从句和句子的一些最重要术语了，而且这个主题足够重要，值得稍作重复。

As we’ve learned before, a clause is a unit of language that contains one subject* and one predicate. That definition overlaps with our working definition of a sentence because every sentence contains at least one clause. 正如我们之前所学，从句是包含一个主语和*一个谓语的语言单位。这个定义与我们关于句子的工作定义重叠，因为每个句子都至少包含一个从句。

We’ve said that are two general kinds of clauses in English: 我们说过英语中有两类一般性的从句：

An** independent clause** contains one subject and one predicate, and it contains no word that makes the clause dependent on another clause to be complete. That is, it contains no word like a subordinating conjunction or others that we will learn about. An independent clause is grammatically complete by itself, so it can stand by itself as a complete sentence. 独立从句包含一个主语和一个谓语，并且它不含任何使该从句依赖另一个从句才能完整的词。也就是说，它不含像从属连词这样的词，也不含我们将要学习的其他词。独立从句在语法上自身是完整的，因此它可以作为一个完整的句子独立存在。

A** dependent clause** contains one subject and one predicate, and it is not grammatically complete by itself. It functions as part of an independent clause. Dependent clauses include the subordinate clause (which we create with a subordinating conjunction), and other kinds of dependent clauses that we’ll learn about soon. 从属从句包含一个主语和一个谓语，并且它在语法上自身不完整。它作为独立从句的一部分发挥作用。从属从句包括从句（我们用从属连词构成的那一种），以及我们很快就会学到的其他类型的从属从句。

According to these definitions, this is an independent clause: 根据这些定义，下面是一个独立从句：

We fixed dinner for our parents last night. 昨晚我们给父母做了晚饭。

But if we add a subordinating conjunction to it, it becomes a de- pendent clause that needs to be connected to an independent clause: 但如果我们给它加上一个从属连词，它就变成了一个需要与独立从句连接的从属从句：

Before we fixed dinner for our parents last night . . . 昨晚我们给父母做晚饭之前……

A subordinate clause is one kind of dependent clause. A subordinate clause contains one subject and one predicate, and it* * must be connected to an independent clause by a subordinating conjunction. The clause above (Before we fixed dinner . . .) is a subordinate clause. 从句是从属从句的一种。从句包含一个主语和一个谓语，并且它必须通过从属连词与独立从句连接。上面的从句（Before we fixed dinner . . .）就是一个从句。

Again,** notice the difference between dependent clauses and subordinate clauses: A subordinate clause is one kind of dependent clause. (We’ll study two other kinds of dependent clauses in later chapters: the relative clause and the nominal clause.) 再次注意从属从句与从句之间的区别：从句是从属从句的一种。（我们将在后面的章节中学习另外两种从属从句：关系从句和名词性从句**。）

Finally, here is a new definition of a** sentence, that important unit of language that we’ve talked about all along: 最后，这里给出句子**的一个新定义，**这个我们一直在讨论的重要语言单位：

A sentence is a unit of language that contains at least one independent clause. It may also contain one or more dependent clauses. 句子是至少包含一个独立从句的语言单位。它也可以包含一个或多个从属从句。

Like most definitions of a sentence, this one would not satisfy most linguists (a notoriously argumentative bunch), but it will do for our purposes. 像大多数句子的定义一样，这个定义不会让大多数语言学家满意（他们是一群出了名爱争论的人），但对我们的目的来说已经够用了。

CLASSIFYING BY STRUCTURE

按结构分类

With these definitions, we go on to the well-known, four-part classification of sentences, based on their structures: 有了这些定义，我们继续基于句子结构进行著名的四部分分类：

• Simple sentences • 简单句 • Compound sentences • 复合句 • Complex sentences • 复杂句 • Compound-Complex sentences • 复合-复杂句

You’ve probably encountered them before: 你可能以前见过它们：

Simple Sentence: A simple sentence contains only one in- dependent clause: 简单句： 简单句只包含一个独立从句：

I went to the garage. 我去了车库。

A simple sentence can contain a compound subject, a compound predicate, or other compound structures. The sentence below contains one compound subject and one compound predicate, so it’s still a simple sentence: 简单句可以包含复合主语、复合谓语或其他复合结构。下面的句子包含一个复合主语和一个复合谓语，所以它仍然是一个简单句：

Alphonse and I went to the garage, found his car, and drove it home. 阿方斯和我去了车库，找到他的车，并把它开回家。

The following sentence contains a compound subject, a com- pound verb, and a compound predicate: 下面的句子包含复合主语、复合动词和复合谓语：

Jim and Louise planned and prepared the meal and cleared up afterward. 吉姆和路易斯计划、并准备了饭菜并事后收拾干净。

It’s still just one clause, so it’s a simple sentence. 它仍然只是一个从句，所以它是一个简单句。

Compound Sentence: A compound sentence contains at least two clauses: two or more independent clauses joined by one or more coordinating conjunctions. There are no dependent clauses in a compound sentence: 复合句： 复合句至少包含两个从句：两个或多个由一或多个并列连词连接的独立从句。复合句中没有从属从句：

I went to the garage, and I found my bike. 我去了车库，并且我找到了我的自行车。

I found my bike, **but **the tires were flat. 我找到了我的自行车，但是轮胎瘪了。

Complex Sentence: A complex sentence contains at least two clauses: only one independent clause and one or more de- pendent clauses. In the examples in this chapter, the dependent clauses will be joined to the independent clauses by one or more subordinating conjunctions (shown in bold): 复杂句： 复杂句至少包含两个从句：只有一个独立从句和一个或多个从属从句。在本章的例子中，从属从句将通过一或多个从属连词（以粗体显示）与独立从句连接：

I went to the garage because I needed my bike. 我去了车库因为我需要我的自行车。

Complex sentences can also contain relative clauses or nominal clauses, as we will soon see. 复杂句也可以包含关系从句或名词性从句，我们很快就会看到。

Compound-Complex Sentence: A compound-complex sentence contains at least three clauses. It contains two or more independent clauses joined by one or more coordinating con- junctions, and it also contains one or more dependent clauses. In the example below, the dependent clause is a subordinate clause, joined by a subordinating conjunction: 复合-复杂句： 复合-复杂句至少包含三个从句。它包含两个或多个由一或多个并列连词连接的独立从句，并且还包含一个或多个从属从句。在下面的例子中，从属从句是一个从句，由从属连词连接：

I went to the garage because I needed my bike, and I found it. 我去了车库因为我需要我的自行车，并且我找到了它。

As we’ll soon see, compound-complex sentences can also contain relative clauses or nominal clauses. 正如我们很快会看到的，复合-复杂句也可以包含关系从句或名词性从句。

Fragments: There’s a fifth kind of sentence that’s not really a sentence at all. It’s a fragment sentence, a structurally incom- plete sentence, and there are many ways to write them. Here’s one way: 碎片句： 还有第五种"句子"，它其实根本不是句子。它是一个碎片句，结构上不完整的句子，而且有很多种写法。这里是一种：

I went to the garage and I found my bike. Because I needed it. 我去了车库并且我找到了我的自行车。因为我需要它。

The second sentence is a fragment; it’s simply a subordinate clause that is punctuated like a sentence. We use such fragments all the time in conversation: 第二个句子是一个碎片；它只是一个被当作句子标点的从句。我们在对话中一直使用这样的碎片：

Why were you looking for your bike? Because I needed it. 你为什么在找你的自行车？因为我需要它。

Usually no one objects, or even notices. In careful writing, how- ever, we should avoid fragments unless we’re deliberately using them for emphasis. Even then, we should use them with restraint. 通常没有人反对，甚至没有人注意到。然而，在严谨的写作中，我们应该避免碎片句，除非我们刻意用它们来强调。即便如此，我们也应该克制使用。

What if we combine two fragments? Do two fragments make a whole? The following consists of two subordinate clauses, punctuated like a complete sentence: 如果我们把两个碎片合并会怎样？两个碎片能组成一个整体吗？下面这个由两个从句组成，被标点成了一个完整的句子：

When he finally arrives, if the plane is on time. 当他最终到达时，如果飞机准时的话。

Combining two (or more) dependent clauses still makes a fragment sentence, because a sentence has to have at least one independent clause. This kind of fragment is never acceptable, unless you’re Gertrude Stein, and you probably aren’t. (If you are, get in touch with us immediately.) 合并两个（或更多）从属从句仍然构成一个碎片句，因为句子必须至少有一个独立从句。这种碎片永远不可接受，除非你是格特鲁德·斯坦，而你很可能不是。（如果你是，请立即与我们联系。）

CLASSIFYING BY PURPOSE

按用途分类

There is another way to classify sentences: according to their purposes. Even in these classifications, sentence structure and punctuation are important. 还有另一种给句子分类的方法：根据它们的用途。即使在这些分类中，句子结构和标点也很重要。

As we’ve seen, declarative sentences make a statement. They usually have the subject + predicate structure we’ve exam- ined (subject first, predicate second), and they usually end with a period: 正如我们所见，陈述句是用来陈述的。它们通常具有我们考察过的主语 + 谓语结构（主语在前，谓语在后），并且通常以句号结尾：

I am in trouble. 我有麻烦了。

Interrogative sentences ask a question. They may begin with a question word (Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?) or with a verb. They typically end with a question mark: 疑问句用来提问。它们可以以疑问词（Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?）或动词开头。它们通常以问号结尾：

Why do these things always happen to me? 为什么这种事总是发生在我身上？

How can these things keep happening? Do things like this ever happen to you? 这种事怎么可能不断发生？这种事曾经发生在你身上吗？

As the third example above shows, many questions (those that can be answered by yes or* no*) can be formed from declarative sentences by altering the placement of a verb. An auxiliary verb (like do) is placed before the subject: 正如上面的第三个例子所示，许多疑问句（那些可以用是或否回答的）可以通过改变动词的位置从陈述句构成。助动词（如 do）被放在主语之前：

You know what I’m talking about. Do you know what I’m talking about? 你知道我在说什么。你知道我在说什么吗？

Sometimes, especially in conversation and fictional dialogue, interrogatives are just a word or two that make sense in context (we hope): 有时，特别是在对话和虚构的对话中，疑问句只是上下文中能理解的一两个词（我们希望如此）：

What? Why? Who, me? 什么？为什么？谁，我？

Interrogatives can also be statements that end in tag questions: 疑问句也可以是结尾带附加疑问句的陈述：

You did forget your textbooks, didn’t you? I won’t need them, will I? 你确实忘了你的课本，不是吗？我将不需要它们，是吗？

These two examples above are not run-on sentences or comma splices. They are correct, completely acceptable sentences, and they’re a bit more complicated than they might look. 上面这两个例子不是粘连句，也不是逗号误接句。它们是正确的、完全可接受的句子，而且比看起来要复杂一些。

As you see in the two examples, a tag question is added to the end of a declarative sentence with a comma, and it repeats the auxiliary verb and the subject of the declarative. If the declarative is positive (You did forget your textbooks), the tag question is negative (didn’t you?). If the declarative is negative (*I won’t need * them), the tag is positive (will I?). 正如你在两个例子中所看到的，附加疑问句是用逗号加在陈述句末尾的，它重复陈述句的助动词和主语。如果陈述句是肯定的（You did forget your textbooks），附加疑问句是否定的（didn’t you?）。如果陈述句是否定的（I won’t need them），附加疑问句是肯定的（will I?）。

In other words, negative tag questions anticipate positive answers: 换句话说，否定附加疑问句预期肯定回答：

You forgot your textbooks, didn’t you? Oh—yes, I did. 你忘了你的课本，不是吗？哦——是的，我忘了。

And positive tag questions anticipate negative answers: 而肯定附加疑问句预期否定回答：

I won’t need them, will I? No, you won’t. 我将不需要它们，是吗？不，你不需要。

But we don’t always get the answer we anticipate, do we? (Or, as the great Fats Waller often said: “One never knows, do one?”) 但我们并不总是得到预期的答案，不是吗？（或者，正如伟大的法茨·沃勒常说的：“谁也不知道，是吗？"）

An** imperative sentence** is a command. It may end with a period or an exclamation mark, and it may be missing the subject: 祈使句是一个命令。它可以用句号或感叹号结尾，并且可能缺少主语：

Get out of here! Go! Scram! Get lost! 滚出去！走！快滚！走开！

In an imperative sentence, the missing subject is often an implied second-person pronoun (you) perhaps with an implied auxiliary verb: 在祈使句中，缺失的主语通常是一个隐含的第二人称代词（you），可能还带有隐含的助动词：

[You must] Get out of here! [You must] Stop that! [你必须]滚出去！[你必须]停下！

Commands can be phrased more politely, but they’re still imperatives: 命令可以用更礼貌的方式表达，但它们仍然是祈使句：

Please don’t do that. 请不要那样做。

Exclamatory sentences express strong emotion. They have no distinctive structure or end punctuation, and they’re often incomplete sentences or just a phrase: 感叹句表达强烈的情感。它们没有独特的结构或结尾标点，而且常常是不完整的句子或仅仅是一个短语：

No! Don’t! Oh, that’s just great What the heck? 不！别！哦，那真是太棒了 搞什么鬼？

The four classifications that we just examined illustrate how inadequate simple terms and concepts sometimes are in analyzing what language can do. In some cases, because language is capable of explicit and implicit meanings, sentences don’t clearly fit in any single category; they may have implicit meanings quite different from their explicit purpose. 我们刚才考察的四种分类说明了简单的术语和概念在分析语言能做什么时有时是多么不充分。在某些情况下，因为语言能够表达显性和隐性的意义，句子并不能清楚地归入任何单一类别；它们可能有与显性用途大不相同的隐性意义。

Suppose a teacher in a classroom says to a student, 假设课堂上的老师对学生说，

You look puzzled. 你看起来很困惑。

In that context, this declarative sentence may contain an implicit interrogative: Do you have a question? 在那个语境中，这个陈述句可能含有一个隐含的疑问句：你有问题吗？

Or suppose the teacher says to a student in the back row, 或者假设老师对后排的一个学生说，

I’m watching you. 我在看着你。

That could be an implicit imperative, meaning Stop what you’re * doing! Behave yourself! 那可能是一个隐含的祈使句，意思是停下你正在做的事！规矩点！*

The teacher might imply the same imperative idea with a ques- tion: Did you have something to say? 老师也可能用一个问题来暗示同样的祈使意思：你有什么要说的吗？

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者的建议

1. Beginning sentences with conjunctions.

1. 用连词开头写句子。

You may have learned in school that writers should not begin a sentence with the subordinating conjunction because, like this: 你可能在学校里学到过，写作者不应该用从属连词 because 开头写句子，像这样：

Because Linda was late for school, she left home hastily. 因为琳达上学迟到了，她匆忙离开了家。

In fact, that is a perfectly good complex sentence, and good writers do indeed begin sentences with because. But you shouldn’t do this: 事实上，这是一个非常好的复杂句，优秀的写作者确实用 because 开头写句子。但你不应该这样做：

WRONG: Because Linda was late for school. She left home hastily. 错误：因为琳达上学迟到了。她匆忙离开了家。

As we saw earlier, a subordinate clause has to be connected to an independent clause unless you’re deliberately writing a fragment. 正如我们之前所见，从句必须与一个独立从句连接，除非你刻意写一个碎片句。

You can also begin sentences with coordinating conjunctions, but don’t overdo it. We’ve done it twice in the last page or so: 你也可以用并列连词开头写句子，但不要过度。我们在最近一页左右已经这样做了两次：

But you shouldn’t do this. And, even then, we should use them with restraint. 但是你不应该这样做。而且，即便如此，我们也应该克制使用它们。

The initial conjunction connects the idea of the sentence to the preceding sentences—it’s one way to create paragraph ** coherence. It also contributes to a somewhat less formal tone, which is desirable in some contexts. 开头的连词把句子的意思与前面的句子连接起来——这是创造段落连贯性**的一种方式。它也有助于形成一种略不正式的语气，这在某些语境中是可取的。

A sentence that begins with a coordinating conjunction is not a fragment sentence. It is a stylistic variation that you should use with restraint. 以并列连词开头的句子不是碎片句。它是一种你应该克制使用的风格变体。

2. Commas in compound structures.

2. 复合结构中的逗号。

When a sentence contains a compound phrase of two parts, commas are usually not necessary: 当一个句子包含由两部分组成的复合短语时，逗号通常没有必要：

My brother and your sister are planning a party. 我哥哥和你姐姐正在计划一个聚会。

When there are three or more parts in the compound structure, we typically use only one conjunction to join them all, and commas separate the parts: 当复合结构中有三个或更多部分时，我们通常用仅一个连词把它们全部连接起来，并用逗号分隔各部分：

My brother**, your sister, and** their friends are planning a party. 我哥哥**， 你姐姐，以及**他们的朋友正在计划一个聚会。

As you may have noticed in the examples earlier, compound sentences use a comma to mark the end of every independent clause except the last: 正如你可能在前面的例子中注意到的，复合句用一个逗号来标示除最后一个以外的每个独立从句的结尾：

Now you’re behaving yourself**,** but you have to leave anyway. 现在你守规矩了**，****但是**你无论如何都得离开。

You’re behaving yourself now**,** yet you have to leave**,** and you can’t come back. 你现在守规矩了**，****然而你还是得离开，****而且**你不能回来。

When the two clauses are short and simple, we can omit the comma: 当两个从句简短而简单时，我们可以省略逗号：

I am angry and I am leaving. 我很生气，我要离开了。

When the clauses are long and complex, the commas separating the clauses become more important. They help the reader understand where one clause begins and another ends. 当从句长而复杂时，分隔从句的逗号就变得更加重要。它们帮助读者理解一个从句在哪里开始，另一个在哪里结束。

When a subordinate clause begins the sentence, the comma separates the subordinate clause from the independent clause, unless the subordinate clause is brief and the sentence is unam- biguous without the comma: 当从句位于句首时，逗号把从句与独立从句分隔开，除非从句简短且句子在没有逗号时也无歧义：

Because I could not stop for Death**,** I hid behind a tree. (Emily Dickinson, improved.) 因为我无法停下等死**，**我躲到了一棵树后。（艾米莉·狄金森，改进版。）

The sentences below challenge our comprehension (at least a little) because they each need a comma to mark the end of a subordinate clause. Read these sentences and decide where the commas should go: 下面的句子挑战我们的理解力（至少有一点），因为它们每个都需要一个逗号来标示从句的结尾。读这些句子并决定逗号应该放在哪里：

Because you’ve already eaten dinner at our house tonight will be postponed. 因为你已经在我们的房子吃过晚饭今晚将被推迟。

After you’ve eaten the dog should be fed right away. 在你吃过之后狗应该马上被喂。

Yes, we deliberately wrote these sentences to be difficult without the comma. But such sentences do occur in our everyday writing. Commas are important in these cases because they clarify the structure of the sentence for the reader. (If you haven’t yet worked it out, both of those last two examples need a comma after eaten.) 是的，我们故意写了这些没有逗号就很难懂的句子。但这种句子确实出现在我们的日常写作中。逗号在这些情况下很重要，因为它们为读者澄清了句子的结构。（如果你还没想出来，最后这两个例子都需要在 eaten 后面加一个逗号。）

EXERCISES

练习题

**10a. **Go back to the beginning pages of this chapter and reread the definitions of an independent clause, a dependent clause, and a sentence. Then try to write the three definitions from memory, and use the book to check your work. 10a. 回到本章开头的几页，重读独立从句、从属从句和句子的定义。然后试着凭记忆写出这三个定义，并用书来核对你的作业。

**10b. **Classify the following sentences according to their structures. Each sentence will be simple, compound, complex, or compound- complex. Refer to the definitions in this chapter when you need to. 10b. 根据结构对下面的句子进行分类。每个句子将是简单句、复合句、复杂句或复合-复杂句。需要时请参考本章的定义。

Here are a few points to help you: 这里有几个要点帮助你：

• Pay attention to punctuation, which often helps. • 注意标点，它常常有帮助。 • Watch for conjunctions of all kinds; don’t confuse preposi- tions with conjunctions. • 注意各类连词；不要把介词和连词混淆。 • Remember that a compound phrase of some sort (like a compound subject or compound direct object) may be in a sentence that does not itself have compound structure. • 记住，某种复合短语（如复合主语或复合直接宾语）可能出现在本身没有复合结构的句子中。

Finally, there is at least one fragment sentence here that can’t be classified any other way. Classify every incomplete sentence you find as a fragment. 最后，这里至少有一个碎片句，无法以其他方式分类。把你发现的每个不完整的句子都归类为碎片句。

1. My family owned a cocker spaniel when I was young.

2. 我小时候家里养过一只可卡犬。

3. Before the meeting, we will set up the room, and you should prepare the refreshments.

4. 会议前，我们会布置房间，而且你应该准备茶点。

5. Before the meeting begins, we will set up the room, and you should prepare the refreshments.

6. 会议开始前，我们会布置房间，而且你应该准备茶点。

7. He has done well since graduation, and he credits his success to the university.

8. 他毕业后表现很好，而且他把成功归功于这所大学。

9. As if he is our supervisor.

10. 好像他是我们的主管似的。

11. Since graduation, when he began working here, while Arthur was the supervisor of both departments.

12. 自从毕业、当他开始在这里工作、而亚瑟是两个部门的主管期间。

13. Louise and Sharon went to the garage and found their car.

14. 路易斯和沙伦去了车库并找到了他们的车。

15. Either Arthur and Gwyn find a way to solve this problem themselves, or they must seek help.

16. 要么亚瑟和格温自己找到解决这个问题的方法，要么他们必须寻求帮助。

17. Both spring and fall are their favorite seasons for camping and fishing in the mountains.

18. 春天和秋天都是他们去山里露营和钓鱼最喜欢的季节。

19. We sat nervously as we waited for our interviews.

20. 我们紧张地坐着，等待面试。

21. During our interviews, the applicants occasionally answered poorly, but in general they did well.

22. 在面试中，应聘者偶尔回答得不好，但总体上他们表现得很好。

23. After they left the office, they returned, for Louise had for- gotten her portfolio.

24. 他们离开办公室后，又回来了，因为路易斯忘了她的作品集。

10c. Return to the sentences in 10b, and identify the complete subjects and predicates in all the clauses of all the complete sentences. Put subjects in brackets and underline predicates. 10c. 回到 10b 中的句子，识别所有完整句子所有从句中的完整主语和谓语。把主语放在方括号里，谓语加下划线。

**10d. **Classify the following sentences according to their purposes: Each sentence will be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. (Don’t worry about possible implicit meanings.) Refer to the definitions in this chapter when you need to. 10d. 根据用途对下面的句子进行分类：每个句子将是陈述句、疑问句、祈使句或感叹句。（不必担心可能的隐性意义。）需要时请参考本章的定义。

1. What a mess!

2. 真是一团糟！

3. What are you shouting about?

4. 你在喊什么？

5. I forgot my portfolio, and now the office is closed.

6. 我忘了我的作品集，现在办公室关门了。

7. Just relax and get it tomorrow.

8. 放松点，明天去拿吧。

9. Listen!

10. 听！

11. The boys’ choir is singing.

12. 男童合唱团在唱歌。

13. What music those children make!

14. 那些孩子演奏的音乐多美啊！

15. Didn’t Count Dracula say that once?

16. 德古拉伯爵不是曾说过那句话吗？

17. Are you comparing the boys’ choir to wolves?

18. 你是在把男童合唱团和狼群比较吗？

19. Stop twisting my words!

20. 别歪曲我的话！

关系从句，

In this chapter we learn about another kind of dependent clause, the relative clause. There are two kinds of relative clauses. The first that we’ll examine is based on the relative pronouns; the second is based on the relative adverbs. 在本章中，我们将学习另一种从属从句——关系从句（relative clause）。关系从句有两类。我们首先考察的是基于关系代词的关系从句；第二类是基于关系副词的关系从句。

THEY’RE ALL RELATIVE

它们都是关系词

The relative pronouns are 关系代词（relative pronouns）有

who whom whose which that who（谁）　whom（谁，宾格）　whose（谁的）　which（哪一个）　that（那个）

(Whom is the objective form of who; whose is the possessive.) （whom 是 who 的宾格形式；whose 是属格/所有格形式。）

Committing these five relative pronouns to memory will help you recognize relative clauses. 将这五个关系代词牢记于心，有助于你识别关系从句。

As you’ll see in the examples below, relative pronouns begin relative clauses. The relative clauses are underlined: 正如你在下面的例子中将看到的，关系代词引导关系从句。下面关系从句已加下划线：

The man who spoke to you is my uncle. My uncle is the man whom you saw. 那位跟你说话的男人是我叔叔。我叔叔就是你看到的那个人。

The woman whose car you hit is my neighbor. The car, which is a total wreck, is a Chevrolet. The car that you hit is a Chevrolet. 你撞了车的那个女人是我的邻居。那辆车——which 已完全报废——是一辆雪佛兰。你撞的那辆车是一辆雪佛兰。

Relative clauses modify nouns in a sentence. They cannot be moved around like subordinate clauses, but always appear after the nouns they modify. 关系从句修饰句中的名词。它们不能像从属从句那样随意移动，而是总是出现在其所修饰的名词之后。

Relative pronouns play two roles in a sentence. First, relative pronouns connect their own clause to another clause, which is usually independent. Second, as pronouns, they stand in for nouns. The relative pronoun appears in the relative clause, and the antecedent of the pronoun is in the independent clause. 关系代词在句中扮演两个角色。首先，关系代词将其所在的从句与另一个从句（通常是独立从句）连接起来。其次，作为代词，它们替代名词。关系代词出现在关系从句中，而该代词的先行词则出现在独立从句中。

Here’s an important point: The antecedent of the relative pronoun is always the noun modified by the relative clause. 这里有一个要点：关系代词的先行词永远是受关系从句修饰的那个名词。

To examine relative clauses further (or even farther), let’s begin with two brief independent clauses: 为了进一步（甚至更“远”地）考察关系从句，让我们从两个简短的独立从句开始：

1. The job is part-time.

2. 这份工作是兼职。

3. You want the job.

4. 你想要这份工作。

With a relative pronoun, we can replace the words the job in Sentence 2 with the relative pronoun that to create (with a bit of rearranging) a relative clause: that you want. Then we can embed that clause into the middle of Sentence 1: 借助关系代词，我们可以用关系代词 that 替换句 2 中的 the job，从而（稍作调整）构成一个关系从句：that you want（你想要的）。然后我们可以将该从句嵌入句 1 的中间：

4. The job that you want is part-time.

5. 你想要的那份工作（that you want）是兼职。

The words that you want make up the relative clause, which is now part of Sentence 1, the independent clause. that you want 这几个词构成了关系从句，它现在是独立从句（句 1）的一部分。

As you’ve just seen, with relative pronouns we can combine two independent clauses into one complex sentence. The resulting sentence has one independent clause and one relative clause embedded inside the independent clause. And, of course, the sentence may contain more than two clauses. 正如你刚才所见，借助关系代词，我们可以把两个独立从句合并为一个复合句。所得到的句子有一个独立从句和一个嵌入在独立从句之中的关系从句。当然，这个句子也可能包含两个以上从句。

As the example above shows, the relative clause is adjectival: the relative clause modifies job. Relative clauses are always adjec- tival and always follow the nouns they modify*.* 正如上面的例子所示，关系从句具有形容词性质：关系从句修饰 job（工作）。关系从句始终是形容词性的，并且总是跟在它们所修饰的名词之后。

The word order often changes in the relative clause because the relative pronoun must appear early in the clause. 关系从句中的词序常常发生变化，因为关系代词必须出现在从句的开头。

Here’s another example, using who. We’ll begin with two independent clauses: 这里是另一个使用 who 的例子。我们将从两个独立从句开始：

1. That man is my uncle.

2. 那个人是我叔叔。

3. That man talked to you.

4. 那个人跟你说过话。

Now, we use who to replace that man in Sentence 2. Then we embed the resulting relative clause into the middle of Sentence 1: 现在，我们用 who 替换句 2 中的 that man。然后将所得到的关系从句嵌入句 1 的中间：

4. That man who talked to you is my uncle.

5. 跟你说过话的那个人（who talked to you）是我叔叔。

Here’s another example, using whom: 这是另一个使用 whom 的例子：

1. The man is my uncle.

2. 那个人是我叔叔。

3. You saw the man.

4. 你看到了那个人。

Again we replace the man in Sentence 2 with whom, move the relative pronoun to the beginning of the clause, and combine the clauses: 同样地，我们用 whom 替换句 2 中的 the man，将关系代词移到从句开头，并将两个从句合并：

4. The man whom you saw is my uncle.

5. 你看到的那个人（whom you saw）是我叔叔。

Here are more sentences with relative clauses: 以下是更多包含关系从句的句子：

I got the job, which is part-time. I borrowed the broom from the woman whose house I rent. 我得到了那份工作，which 是兼职。我向那个女人借了扫帚，whose 房子是我租的。

Relative pronouns can be the objects of prepositions. In that case, the relative pronoun appears just after the preposition in the relative clause: 关系代词可以是介词的宾语。在这种情况下，关系代词出现在关系从句中介词的紧后面：

There is the man to whom you must speak. 那边有一位你必须对他说话的男人。（There is the man to whom you must speak.）

In all of these examples, and any others we might find, we see the same features of the relative clause built with relative pronouns: 在所有这些例子以及我们可能见到的其他例子中，我们都能看到用关系代词构成的关系从句所具有的相同特征：

1. The relative pronoun appears at or near the beginning of the relative clause.

2. 关系代词出现在关系从句的开头或靠近开头的位置。

3. In its clause, the relative pronoun stands in for the modified noun, which is always the antecedent of the relative pronoun.

4. 在其从句中，关系代词替代被修饰的名词，而这个名词始终是关系代词的先行词。

5. The relative clause follows the antecedent—that is, it follows the modified noun. This means that relative clauses cannot appear at the beginning of a sentence, as subordinate clauses can, but only in the middle or at the end.

6. 关系从句跟在先行词之后——也就是说，它跟在被修饰的名词之后。这意味着关系从句不能像从属从句那样出现在句首，而只能出现在句中或句末。

ADVERBS, RELATIVELY

关系副词

There are just two relative adverbs, when and where, and, like the relative pronouns, they help us form relative clauses that are adjectival. Yes, it seems odd that an adverb is the basis of an adjectival clause, but wait and see. 关系副词（relative adverbs）只有两个——when 和 where——并且和关系代词一样，它们帮助我们构成具有形容词性质的关系从句。是的，一个副词竟是形容词性从句的基础，这看起来似乎有些奇怪，但且看下文。

The relative adverbs when and where are like relative pronouns in other ways: They seem to refer back to a noun earlier in the sentence, and they begin the clause they introduce. 关系副词 when 和 where 在其他方面也类似于关系代词：它们似乎回指句中较早出现的一个名词，并且它们引导其所引出的从句。

We use when to begin a relative clause that modifies a noun that names times: 我们用 when 来引导一个修饰表示时间的名词的关系从句：

I have to finish this paper by noon, when it is due. The year 1929, when the stock market crashed, is the subject of this new book. 我必须在中午之前完成这篇论文，when 是交稿时间。1929 年——when 股市崩盘——是这本新书的主题。

In each case, the relative clauses are underlined, and when 在每种情况下，关系从句都加了下划线，而 when

is an adverb in the relative clause. When refers to the time noun (noon, the year 1929) that is modified by the relative clause. 在关系从句中是一个副词。When 指代被关系从句修饰的时间名词（noon 中午、the year 1929 1929 年）。

We use where in relative clauses that modify nouns that name places: 我们在修饰表示地点的名词的关系从句中使用 where：

Her favorite city is Atlanta, where she was born. 她最喜爱的城市是亚特兰大，where 她出生在那里。

Marshfield, Missouri, where astronomer Edwin Hubble grew up, is a pleasant little town. 密苏里州的马什菲尔德——where 天文学家埃德温·哈勃在那里长大——是一个宜人的小城镇。

In each sentence, the relative clause modifies the place word (Atlanta and Marshfield, Missouri) that precedes the relative adverb. 在每个句子中，关系从句都修饰位于关系副词之前的位置词（Atlanta 亚特兰大 和 Marshfield, Missouri 密苏里州马什菲尔德）。

Here are some more examples: 以下是一些更多的例子：

This is a month when temperatures are low. 这是一个气温偏低的月份**（when** 气温低）。

I know a store where we will find that book. 我知道一家书店**（where** 我们会在那里找到那本书）。

This is the time of year when days get shorter. 这是一年中白昼变短的季节**（when** 白天变短）。

I know of a spooky abandoned house where ghosts, were- wolves, and my old high school teachers have been seen. 我知道一所阴森的废弃房子**（where** 有人见过鬼魂、狼人和我以前的高中老师）。

(That last sentence is not true. There are no such things as werewolves.) （最后一句话不是真的。世界上根本没有狼人这种东西。）

In this chapter, all the sentences containing relative clauses are complex sentences, with one independent clause and one de- pendent clause. But relative clauses can also appear in sentences with more clauses. 在本章中，所有包含关系从句的句子都是复合句，含有一个独立从句和一个从属从句。但关系从句也可以出现在含有更多从句的句子之中。

In sentences built with relative adverbs, we all find the same features: 在用关系副词构成的句子中，我们同样能发现相同的特征：

1. The relative adverb appears at the beginning of the relative

clause*.*

1. 关系副词出现在关系从句的开头。

2. The relative adverb is selected on the basis of the word that will be modified by the relative clause: when to modify time words, and where to modify place words.

3. 关系副词是根据将被关系从句修饰的词来选择的：用 when 修饰时间词，用 where 修饰地点词。

4. The relative clause follows the modified word. This means that relative adverb clauses cannot appear at the beginning of a sentence, as subordinate clauses can, but only in the middle or at the end.

5. 关系从句跟在被修饰的词之后。这意味着关系副词从句不能像从属从句那样出现在句首，而只能出现在句中或句末。

These features are noticeably similar to the features of the relative clauses built with pronouns. (You did notice that, didn’t you? Didn’t you?) 这些特征与用代词构成的关系从句的特征明显相似。（你确实注意到了，对吧？对吧？）

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者

1. Omitted relative adverbs.

1. 省略的关系副词。

Sometimes in casual writing and conversation, the relative adverbs when and where are left out: 在非正式的写作和口语中，关系副词 when 和 where 有时会被省略：

This is the time of year days get shorter. This is the month temperatures are low. I know a place we can find that new book. 这是一年中白昼变短（的时候）。这是气温偏低（的月份）。我知道一个（我们）能找到那本新书的地方。

Generally ignored in conversation, these omissions sometimes seem odd in writing. Don’t do this in your formal writing**.** 这些省略在口语中通常不被注意，但在写作中有时显得奇怪。在你的正式写作中不要这样做**。**

2. Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses.

2. 限制性与非限制性从句。

Consider these two sentences, both of them containing the same relative clause. Do you see the differences in the meaning of these two sentences? 考虑下面这两个句子，两者都包含同一个关系从句。你看出这两个句子在意义上的区别了吗？

All politicians who are crooks should go to jail. 所有是骗子的政客都应该进监狱。

All politicians**,** who are crooks**,** should go to jail. 所有的政客——都是骗子——都应该进监狱。

The commas make a big difference. In the first sentence, we’re told that only those politicians who are crooks should go to jail. 逗号造成了巨大的区别。在第一个句子里，我们被告知只有那些是骗子的政客才应该进监狱。

In the second, we’re told parenthetically that all politicians are crooks, and they all should go to the hoosegow. 在第二个句子里，我们通过插入语得知所有政客都是骗子，并且他们全都应该进监狱（the hoosegow，俚语，指监狱）。

We’re comparing restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses here. In the first sentence, the restrictive clause restricts the meaning of all politicians to include *only *those who are crooks. The non-restrictive clause in the second sentence informs us that all politicians are crooks. 我们在这里比较的是限制性（restrictive）和非限制性（non-restrictive）关系从句。在第一个句子中，限制性从句把 all politicians（所有政客）的含义限制为只包括那些是骗子的人。第二个句子中的非限制性从句则告诉我们所有政客都是骗子。

The pair of commas in the second sentence (known as paren- thetical commas) make the enclosed information supplemental, so that the relative clause does not modify or restrict the words all * politicians. 第二个句子中的那对逗号（被称为插入性逗号*，parenthetical commas）使被括起来的信息成为补充性的，因此关系从句并不修饰或限制 all politicians（所有政客）这几个词。

Here are some more examples: 以下是一些更多的例子：

It’s fun to watch magicians who are clever. It’s fun to watch magicians**,** who are clever. 看聪明的魔术师表演很有趣。看魔术师表演很有趣——他们都很聪明。

The first sentence tells us that only some magicians (those who are clever) are fun. The second sentence gives us some supplemen- tary information about all magicians. 第一个句子告诉我们只有部分魔术师（那些聪明的）才有趣。第二个句子则给出了关于所有魔术师的一些补充信息。

Notice that the non-restrictive clauses could be enclosed in parentheses instead of commas. 注意，非限制性从句也可以用圆括号而不是逗号括起来。

In some sentences, the commas don’t seem to make much difference: 在有些句子中，逗号似乎没有造成太大区别：

I dislike those baseball fans who are rude. I dislike those baseball fans**,** who are rude. 我讨厌那些粗鲁的棒球迷。我讨厌那些棒球迷——他们很粗鲁。

In both cases, we’re speaking about a particular group of fans, although the first sentence seems to be about all rude fans; the second, about a particular group of rude fans. 在这两种情况下，我们说的都是某一特定群体的球迷，尽管第一个句子似乎是关于所有粗鲁的球迷，而第二个句子则是关于特定的一群粗鲁球迷。

3. Troublesome relatives.

3. 棘手的关系词。

Some grammar books include why among the relative adverbs: 有些语法书把 why 也列入关系副词：

I know the reason why he left. 我知道他离开的原因。（I know the reason why he left.）

But sentences like this are considered redundant, because we can usually delete the modified noun (reason) without losing any information: 但这样的句子被认为是冗余的，因为我们通常可以删去被修饰的名词（reason 原因）而不丢失任何信息：

I know why he left. 我知道他为什么离开。（I know why he left.）

In this new sentence, why he left is not a relative clause, but a nominal clause, which we’ll learn about in Chapter 12. 在这个新句子中，why he left（他离开的原因）不是一个关系从句，而是一个名词性从句（nominal clause），我们将在第 12 章学习它。

4. More troublesome relatives.

4. 更多棘手的关系词。

(You know, it’s hard to avoid troublesome relatives.) Notice the ambiguous use of which in this sentence: （要知道，避免棘手的关系词可真难。）注意下面这个句子中 which 的歧义用法：

The senator said he believed that the general will resign, and the newspaper published an editorial agreeing with what the senator said, which disappointed me. 参议员说他相信将军将会辞职，而报纸发表了一篇社论赞同参议员的表态，which 让我感到失望。

Using pronouns near the end of long sentences can confuse readers, who may not be able to tell what the precise antecedent is. (In the example above, what does which refer to?) This is an important point because clarity is always important. Make sure antecedents are clear. 在长句接近末尾处使用代词会让读者感到困惑，他们可能无法判断准确的先行词是什么。（在上面的例子中，which 指代的是什么？）这一点很重要，因为清晰性始终很重要。务必确保先行词清晰明确。

To improve a sentence like the one above, you may need to break it up into two or more sentences, and you certainly want to make clear what disappointed you: 要改进上面那样的句子，你可能需要把它拆分成两个或更多句子，而且你肯定想要说清楚是什么让你感到失望：

The senator disappointed me when he said . . . I was disappointed to hear that the general will resign . . . The newspaper editorial disappointed me when . . . 参议员说……时让我失望。听说将军将要辞职让我感到失望……报纸的社论让我失望，因为……

5. Who or that?

5. who 还是 that？

Compare these sentences: 比较这些句子：

I’ll speak with the man who runs this place. I’ll speak with the man that runs this place. 我要和那个经营此地的人谈谈。我要和那个经营此地的人谈谈。

We use both versions in informal communication, and few people notice or care. In formal writing, however, many writers and editors prefer to use only who (and whom)* *to refer to people. 在非正式交流中我们两种说法都用，很少有人注意或在意。然而在正式写作中，许多作者和编辑倾向于只用 who（和 whom）来指代人。

6. Who or whom?

6. who 还是 whom？

Because a relative pronoun always has a grammatical function in its relative clause, sometimes we have to decide when to use who or* whom. Who* is the nominative form of the pronoun, used for subjects; whom is the objective. Compare: 因为关系代词在其关系从句中总有一个语法功能，有时我们不得不决定何时使用 who 还是 whom。who 是代词的主格形式，用作主语；whom 是宾格。比较：

I’ll speak with the man who runs this place. That is the man with whom I spoke. 我要和那个经营此地的男人谈谈。那是我与之交谈过的男人。

Writers and speakers are often uncertain about when to use whom, which may be one reason many people prefer that instead. Let’s sort some matters out. 作者和说话者常常不确定何时该用 whom，这可能是许多人宁愿用 that 的一个原因。让我们来理清一些问题。

When the pronoun follows a preposition (as in the second example above), the grammatically correct choice is whom: *With * whom I spoke. 当代词跟在介词之后时（如上面的第二个例子），语法上正确的选择是 whom：With whom I spoke（我与……交谈）。

Sometimes rearranging the sentence, or part of it, makes the choice easier. If we’re ending a sentence with a preposition (as in He is the person who I spoke with), putting the preposition before the pronoun makes it more obvious that we need the objective case: 有时重新安排句子或其一部分的语序，会让选择变得更容易。如果我们以介词结束句子（如 He is the person who I spoke with），把介词放在代词之前，就更清楚地表明我们需要宾格：

He is the person with whom I spoke. 他是那个我与之交谈过的人。（He is the person with whom I spoke.）

Suppose we have a question like this: 假设我们有这样一个问题：

Who do you trust? 你信任谁？（Who do you trust?）

Who may sound right because we’re accustomed to putting a nominative-case pronoun at the beginning of a sentence. But try to answer the question using either he or him: Who 听起来可能没错，因为我们习惯于把主格代词放在句首。但试着用 he 或 him 来回答这个问题：

I trust him. 我信任他。（I trust him.）

The answer to the question is him (an objective case pronoun) because it’s the direct object of trust. In the question above, the pronoun is also the direct object, so use whom: 这个问题的答案是 him（一个宾格代词），因为它是 trust（信任）的直接宾语。在上面那个问题中，该代词也是直接宾语，所以要用 whom：

Whom do you trust? 你信任谁？（Whom do you trust?）

Try out the same procedures with these two questions: 用同样的方法试一试下面这两个问题：

Is that the man who danced with her? Do you know the man who she danced with? 那是和她跳舞的那个男人吗？你认识那个她曾与之跳舞的男人吗？

In the first case, it’s possible to revise the relative clause into a sentence using he or him (He danced with her) which indicates that we need the nominative pronoun, who, in the question. 在第一种情况中，可以把关系从句改写成使用 he 或 him 的句子（He danced with her 他与她跳舞），这表明我们在问题中需要主格代词 who。

In the second example, rephrasing the sentence by moving the preposition gives us Do you know the man with who she danced? It’s now obvious that we need whom: 在第二个例子中，通过移动介词来改写句子，得到 Do you know the man with who she danced? 现在很明显我们需要 whom：

Do you know the man whom she danced with? Do you know the man with whom she danced? 你认识那个她曾与之跳舞的男人吗？你认识那个与她跳过舞的男人吗？

In casual conversation, we’ll all misuse who or whom some- times. But in our formal professional writing, this is often a matter we want to get right—or that an editor or co-author wants right. The he/him test can help us work out these things. 在随意的对话中，我们有时都会误用 who 或 whom。但在我们正式的职场写作中，这往往是我们想要用对的一件事——或者编辑或合著者希望用对的一件事。he/him 测试可以帮助我们弄清这些问题。

In contexts in which you aim for a more conversational style, a more informal tone, using who instead of whom can contribute to that effect. 在追求更口语化风格、更非正式语气的语境中，用 who 代替 whom 有助于营造那种效果。

EXERCISES

练习

**11a. **Underline the relative clauses in the following sentences. Double-underline the relative pronouns. Then locate the nouns modified by each relative clause and enclose them in square brackets, as in this example: 11a. 在下面的句子中给关系从句加下划线。给关系代词加双下划线。然后找出每个关系从句所修饰的名词，并用方括号括起来，如下例所示：

We took that bin of recyclables to the [agency] that collects them. 我们把那箱可回收物送到了收集它们的[机构]。

Remember that some uses of that are not relative pronouns. You’ll see an example here. 请记住，that 的某些用法并不是关系代词。你会在下面看到一个例子。

1. The house that is being renovated was my grandmother’s home.

2. 正在翻修的那栋房子（that is being renovated）曾是我祖母的家。

3. Please get the book, which I left in my office.

4. 请把那本书拿来，which 我落在办公室了。

5. You can give that letter to the man who is waiting outside.

6. 你可以把那封信交给外面正在等待的那个男人（who is waiting outside）。

7. The woman whose car you dented wants to speak to you.

8. whose 车子被你撞凹了的那个女人想跟你说话。

9. The man who is waiting already has that letter that you left in your office.

10. 正在等待的那个男人（who is waiting）已经拿着你落在办公室的那封信了（that you left in your office）。

11. The customer whom you phoned is waiting in the office.

12. 你打电话给他的那位顾客（whom you phoned）正在办公室等候。

13. I know the man to whom they spoke.

14. 我认识他们与之交谈过的那个男人（to whom they spoke）。

**11b. **Underline the relative clauses in the following sentences. Double-underline the relative adverbs. Locate the nouns modified 11b. 在下面的句子中给关系从句加下划线。给关系副词加双下划线。找出每个关系从句所修饰的名词

by each relative clause and enclose them in square brackets, as in this example: 并用方括号括起来，如下例所示：

Yesterday my father drove by the [house] where he was born. 昨天我父亲开车经过了[他出生的那栋]房子（[house] where he was born）。

1. The house where he was born is on Fifth Street.

2. 他出生在的那栋房子（where he was born）在第五街。

3. In April 1943, when he was born, his parents were living and working in the city.

4. 1943 年 4 月，他出生在的那段时间（when he was born），他的父母住在城里并在那里工作。

5. Spring is the season when I am happiest, and home is the place where I am most comfortable.

6. 春天是我最快乐的季节**（when** I am happiest），而家是我最舒适的地方**（where** I am most comfortable）。

7. Marceline, where young Walt Disney lived, is a small town in northern Missouri.

8. 马塞林——年轻的华特·迪士尼生活在那里的小镇（where young Walt Disney lived）——是密苏里州北部的一个小城镇。

9. In 1911, when his family moved to Kansas City, Disney left Marceline.

10. 1911 年，他全家迁往堪萨斯城时（when his family moved to Kansas City），迪士尼离开了马塞林。

11c. Rewrite each of the following pairs of sentences as a single sentence with a relative clause. Make the second sentence the rel- ative clause. 11c. 将下面每一对句子改写为一个带有关系从句的单句。把第二个句子作为关系从句。

Here’s a hint: Find a noun phrase that appears in both sentences. Then replace the phrase in the second sentence with a relative pronoun that will begin the relative clause. 提示如下：找出在两个句子中都出现的名词短语。然后用一个将引导关系从句的关系代词替换第二个句子中的该短语。

A reminder: The relative pronouns are *who, whom, whose, * *which, *and that. 提醒：关系代词有 who、whom、whose、which 和 that。

After you’ve revised the sentence, underline the relative clause that you created. 改写完句子后，给你所创建的关系从句加下划线。

Here’s an example: 例如：

The dictionary could be helpful. You brought the dictionary. (Use that.) 这本词典可能有用。你带来了这本词典。（用 that。）

REWRITE: The dictionary that you brought could be helpful. 改写：你带来的那本词典可能有用。（The dictionary that you brought could be helpful.）

1. That man is my neighbor. That man is standing over there. (Use who or whom.)

2. 那个人是我的邻居。那个人正站在那边。（用 who 或 whom。）

3. I like the car. You rented the car today. (Use that.)

4. 我喜欢那辆车。你今天租了那辆车。（用 that。）

5. The woman is at the door. You called the woman earlier. (Use who or whom.)

6. 那个女人在门口。你早些时候给那个女人打过电话。（用 who 或 whom。）

7. The dog has been found. I lost the dog. (Use that.)

8. 那只狗已经被找到了。我丢的那只狗。（用 that。）

9. My mother is watching Casablanca. My mother loves old movies. (Use who or whom.)

10. 我母亲正在看《卡萨布兰卡》。我母亲喜爱老电影。（用 who 或 whom。）

11d. Rewrite each pair of sentences as one sentence with a relative clause. Make the second sentence the relative clause. Underline the relative clause in each new sentence. 11d. 将每一对句子改写为一个带有关系从句的单句。把第二个句子作为关系从句。在每个新句中给关系从句加下划线。

A hint: Find a noun phrase that appears in both sentences. Then replace the phrase in the second sentence with a relative adverb, either where or when, that will begin the relative clause. You may have to rearrange quite a few words in the new sentence. 提示：找出在两个句子中都出现的名词短语。然后用一个关系副词（where 或 when）替换第二个句子中的该短语，以引导关系从句。你可能需要在新句中重新调整不少词语的顺序。

Here’s an example: 例如：

The house is a century old. He lives in the house. 这栋房子有一个世纪的历史了。他住在这栋房子里。

REWRITE: The house where he lives is a century old. 改写：他住的这栋房子有一个世纪的历史了。（The house where he lives is a century old.）

1. Gary, Indiana, is a pleasant small city. I was born in Gary, Indiana.

2. 印第安纳州的加里是一个宜人的小城市。我出生在印第安纳州的加里。

3. I walked down the street. She lives on the street.

4. 我沿街走去。她住在那条街上。

5. Christmas is a wonderful time of year. Christmas is when

my entire family gathers together. 3. 圣诞节是一年中美好的时光。圣诞节是我全家团聚的时刻。

4. There is the hospital. I was born in the hospital.

5. 那边是那家医院。我出生在那家医院。

6. The book is in the living room. Ron is reading in the living room.

7. 那本书在客厅里。罗恩正在客厅里读书。

名词性从句：我知道……

A** nominal clause**, another kind of dependent clause, can fill noun positions in a sentence. Nominal clauses enable us to embed a clause within a larger sentence and use the sentence to make some observation or judgment about the nominal clause. 名词性从句（nominal clause）是另一种从属从句，它可以充当句中的名词位置。名词性从句使我们能够把一个从句嵌入一个更大的句子之中，并用该句子对名词性从句作出某种观察或判断。

Let’s begin with these sentences, each of which has a transitive verb and a direct object: 让我们从这些句子开始，每个句子都含有一个及物动词和一个直接宾语：

I know Bill. He knows Oshkosh. She will know the answer. 我认识比尔。他认识奥什科什。她将会知道答案。

Now, let’s take this sentence: 现在，让我们来看这个句子：

The plane will leave on time. 飞机将准点起飞。

We can make this sentence into a nominal clause to make a number of statements about the clause: 我们可以把这个句子变成一个名词性从句，从而对该从句作出若干表述：

He knows that the plane will leave on time. She will know if the plane will leave on time. Why the plane did not leave on time is beyond my comprehen- sion. 他知道飞机会准点起飞。她将会知道飞机是否会准点起飞。飞机为何没有准点起飞超出了我的理解范围。

There are two kinds of nominal clauses, and we distinguish them here by the word that begins the clause. 名词性从句有两类，我们在此根据引导从句的词来加以区分。

QUESTION-WORD NOMINALS

疑问词名词性从句

These nominal clauses begin with the question words *who, * what, when, where, why, how and which. They can also begin with compound pronouns, the ones that begin with question words and end with ever (whoever, whomever, and whatever). 这些名词性从句以疑问词 who、what、when、where、why、how 和 which 开头。它们也可以以复合代词（compound pronouns）开头，即那些以疑问词开头、以 ever 结尾的代词（whoever、whomever 和 whatever）。

Let’s begin with a question: Who did it? We can embed that question within a declarative sentence, as a direct object. Here the nominal clause is underlined: 让我们从一个问题开始：Who did it?（是谁做的？）我们可以把那个问题作为一个直接宾语，嵌入一个陈述句之中。这里的名词性从句已加下划线：

I know who did it. 我知道是谁做的。（I know who did it.）

We can also create direct objects with other clauses that begin with question words: 我们也可以用其他以疑问词开头的从句来构成直接宾语：

I learned what he did. I discovered when he did it. I saw where he did it. I will ask why he did it. I will show you how he did it. 我得知他做了什么。我发现他何时做的。我看见他在哪里做的。我将问他为什么做的。我将向你展示他是怎么做的。

Notice that most of these nominal clauses are not worded like questions by our usual standards: They don’t have the normal word order of questions. 请注意，按照我们通常的标准，这些名词性从句大多数并不以疑问句的措辞出现：它们并不具备疑问句正常的词序。

The compound pronouns—whoever, whomever, and whatever— can also begin nominal clauses: 复合代词——whoever、whomever 和 whatever——也可以引导名词性从句：

We will use whatever we find. We will hire whoever applies for this job. 我们将使用我们找到的任何东西（whatever we find）。我们将雇用任何申请这份工作的人（whoever applies for this job）。

FILLING NOUN POSITIONS

充当名词位置

As the examples above illustrate, nominal clauses appear where nouns can appear. They are often the direct objects of transitive verbs like know, see, and learn. 正如上面的例子所说明的，名词性从句出现在名词能够出现的位置。它们常常是 know（知道）、see（看见）和 learn（学习）等及物动词的直接宾语。

Nominal clauses can also be subjects: 名词性从句也可以作主语：

Where these people went is not yet known. Why they come here is a mystery. 这些人去了哪里尚不为人知。他们为何来这里是个谜。

Nominal clauses can be objects of a preposition: 名词性从句可以是介词的宾语：

The professor is writing a book about how people can improve their writing. 这位教授正在写一本关于人们如何提高写作水平的书。

Mr. Chayle has time for whoever needs help and for what- ever happens. 蔡尔先生有时间为任何需要帮助的人（whoever needs help）抽出时间，也为发生的任何事（whatever happens）留出时间。

They can be indirect objects: 它们可以是间接宾语：

You can give whoever applies the job. 你可以把这份工作给任何申请的人（whoever applies）。

And they can be predicate nominatives, following linking verbs: 它们也可以是表语（predicate nominatives），位于系动词之后：

My question is who took my lunch? 我的问题是：谁拿了我的午餐？

NOMINALS WITH THAT, IF, OR WHETHER

由 that、if 或 whether 引导的名词性从句

The three words that, if, and whether (sometimes called nom- inalizers) can also make independent clauses into nominal claus- es that fill noun positions. Here are nominal clauses functioning as direct objects: 这三个词 that、if 和 whether（有时被称为名词化标记，nominalizers）也可以把独立从句变成充当名词位置的名词性从句。以下是一些充当直接宾语的名词性从句：

I wonder if she arrives today. I learned that she arrives today. I don’t know whether [or not] she will arrive today. He demanded that they serve him immediately. We doubt if they will cooperate. 我不知道她今天是否会到。我得知她今天会到。我不清楚她今天是否会到[or not]。他要求他们立即为他服务。我们怀疑他们是否会合作。

In the third example above, whether or not could be treated as a single nominalizing phrase. The sentences above demonstrate that these nominal clauses can be direct objects of the verbs *know, * see, and learn. They could also be objects of the verbs *demand, * ask, inquire, imagine, doubt, and others. 在上面第三个例子中，whether or not 可以被视为一个单一的名词化短语。上面的句子表明，这些名词性从句可以是 know（知道）、see（看见）和 learn（学习）等动词的直接宾语。它们也可以是 demand（要求）、ask（问）、inquire（询问）、imagine（想象）、doubt（怀疑）等动词的宾语。

These verbs indicate an intellectual process that is being per- formed upon the idea in the nominal clause. More simply, we’re thinking about the idea of the nominal clause. 这些动词表示一种正作用于名词性从句所表达观念的智力活动。说得更简单些，我们是在思考名词性从句所表达的观念。

These clauses can perform almost every other function of a noun. They can be subjects: 这些从句几乎能充当名词的所有其他功能。它们可以作主语：

That the sun is at the center of our solar system is beyond all question. 太阳位于我们太阳系的中心这一点是毫无疑问的。

These clauses can also perform other nominal functions, in- cluding those of predicate nominatives or objects of prepositions: 这些从句也可以履行其他名词性功能，包括充当表语或介词的宾语：

The main complaint about the car was that it was too expensive. 对这辆车的主要抱怨是它太贵了。

We know nothing about him except that he arrived yesterday. 我们对他一无所知，只知道他昨天到了。

We often omit the that nominalizer: 我们经常省略 that 这个名词化标记：

The main complaint about the car was [that] it was too expensive. 对这辆车的主要抱怨是[that]它太贵了。

We know nothing about him except [that] he arrived yesterday. 我们对他一无所知，只知道[that]他昨天到了。

But we can’t omit if or whether: 但我们不能省略 if 或 whether：

We asked if they are ready. 我们问他们是否准备好了。

We wondered whether they were ready. 我们想知道他们是否准备好了。

In the exercises in this chapter, nominalized clauses will always make that explicit. 在本章的练习中，名词化从句将始终明确写出 that。

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给写作者

1. That’s that.

1. 就是那个 that。

Compare these sentences: 比较这些句子：

I know that he will attend the ceremony. I know he will attend the ceremony. 我知道他会出席典礼。我知道他会出席典礼。

We showed them that they were wrong. We showed them they were wrong. 我们向他们表明他们错了。我们向他们表明他们错了。

In the first pair, the version without that is more conversational, more direct, and stronger. That’s how we read it, anyway. 在第一组中，不带 that 的版本更口语化、更直接，也更有力。无论如何，我们是这样理解的。

In the second pair, omitting that eliminates the clumsy series of three words beginning with *th-. *That’s an especially helpful change if the text is to be read aloud. 在第二组中，省略 that 去掉了那串以 th- 开头的笨拙的三个词。如果文本要大声朗读，这个改动尤其有帮助。

Eliminating that would also help this sentence: 去掉 that 对下面这个句子也有帮助：

We should tell them that that music is too loud. 我们应该告诉他们那音乐太吵了。

You can see that that that before that music is so repetitive that that *that *should be deleted. And that’s that. 你可以看出，that music 前面的那个 that 如此重复，以至于那个 that 应该被删去。就是这样了。

EXERCISES

练习

**12a. **In the following sentences, identify the functions of each underlined nominal clause. The clauses can be direct objects, subjects, indirect objects, object complements, predicate nomina- tives, or other functions. 12a. 在下面的句子中，指出每个加了下划线的名词性从句的功能。这些从句可以是直接宾语、主语、间接宾语、宾语补语、表语或其他功能。

1. I know why you did that.

2. 我知道你为什么那样做。

3. I can’t imagine what they will do next or who will do it.

4. 我无法想象他们接下来会做什么，或者谁会去做。

5. When they arrive is unknown.

6. 他们何时到达尚不清楚。

7. You already know that they don’t know the area well.

8. 你已经知道他们对这一带并不熟悉。

9. Why they come here is a mystery.

10. 他们为何来这里是个谜。

11. The professor is writing a book about how people improve their writing.

12. 这位教授正在写一本关于人们如何提高写作水平的书。

13. Whether he will succeed is what we are all wondering.

14. 他是否会成功是我们都在好奇的事。

15. He discussed why climate change is happening.

16. 他讨论了气候变化为何会发生。

17. When he arrives, I will tell him when we are leaving.

18. 当他到达时，我会告诉他我们何时离开。

12b. In these sentences, identify the nominal clauses and then identify their functions in each sentence. The clauses can be direct objects, subjects, indirect objects, object complements, predicate nominatives, or other functions. Watch out for other uses of that, including the relative pronoun. 12b. 在这些句子中，找出名词性从句，然后指出它们在每个句子中的功能。这些从句可以是直接宾语、主语、间接宾语、宾语补语、表语或其他功能。要提防 that 的其他用法，包括关系代词的用法。

1. The statement summarizes what he is saying.

2. 这份声明概括了他正在说的话。

3. We will learn if tickets are still available.

4. 我们将获悉门票是否还有售。

5. When we will meet again is the next topic.

6. 我们何时再见面是下一个话题。

7. I have a question about who broke the equipment.

8. 我有一个关于是谁弄坏了设备的问题。

9. I will tell whoever is interested about the news.

10. 我会把这条消息告诉任何感兴趣的人。

11. I don’t know why he left.

12. 我不知道他为何离开。

13. His claim was that he was abducted by aliens.

14. 他的说法是，他被外星人绑架了。

15. His wife made him what he is today.

16. 他的妻子把他塑造成了今天的他。

17. I don’t think that we should blame that on his wife.

18. 我认为我们不该把那件事归咎于他的妻子。

19. We were taught that anything that is worth doing is worth doing well.

20. 我们被教导：任何值得做的事都值得做好。

区分从属从句

We’ve learned that there are three kinds of dependent clauses: subordinate clauses,** **relative clauses, and nominal clauses. 我们已经学过，从属从句（dependent clauses）有三种：从属从句（subordinate clauses，即状语从句）、关系从句（relative clauses）和名词性从句（nominal clauses）。

Sometimes nominal clauses superficially resemble subordi- nate or relative clauses. This chapter will help you get better at recognizing each kind. 有时名词性从句在外表上类似于从属从句或关系从句。本章将帮助你更好地识别每一种从句。

First, let’s review. **Subordinate clauses **are adverbial. They can modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. When modifying verbs, they are usually moveable. They always begin with a subordinating con- junction: 首先，让我们回顾一下。从属从句（subordinate clauses，状语从句）具有副词性质。它们可以修饰动词、形容词和其他副词。当修饰动词时，它们通常可以移动位置。它们总是以从属连词（subordinating conjunction）开头：

While I have been working, the phone has been ringing. The phone has been ringing while I have been working. 当我一直在工作时，电话一直在响。电话一直在响，而我一直在工作。

Since my assistant left, my job has been harder. My job has been harder since my assistant left, 自从我的助手离开后，我的工作变得更难了。我的工作变得更难了，自从我的助手离开后。

Arthur is so generous that he never thinks of himself. 亚瑟如此慷慨，以至于他从不想到自己。

She runs faster than anyone I’ve ever seen. 她跑得比我所见过的任何人都快。

Relative clauses are adjectival, following nouns and occa- sionally pronouns. They begin with relative pronouns or relative adverbs and follow the nouns they modify. 关系从句（relative clauses）具有形容词性质，跟在名词、偶尔也跟在代词之后。它们以关系代词或关系副词开头，并跟在它们所修饰的名词之后。

Ed is the man who told me that story. The report that shocked me is summarized in the papers. It was he who called you earlier. We ate at the restaurant in Portland where we first met. 埃德就是那个给我讲那个故事的男人（who told me that story）。让我震惊的那份报告（that shocked me）已在报纸上作了摘要。早些时候给你打电话的正是他（who called you earlier）。我们在波特兰那家餐厅吃饭，那里是我们初次见面的地方（where we first met）。

Nominal clauses can fill noun positions just about anywhere in a sentence. Nominalizers or question words appear at the be- ginning of nominal clauses: 名词性从句（nominal clauses）几乎可以充当句中任何位置的名词。名词化标记或疑问词出现在名词性从句的开头：

I wonder if he will come to the party. I think that he will come. I wondered why you left early. We have learned how the mistake was made. Whoever speaks up will be heard. She can see whomever she likes. 我不知道他是否会来参加聚会。我想他会来。我想知道你为何早退。我们已经了解这个错误是如何造成的。任何发声的人都会被听到。她可以见任何她喜欢的人。

DISTINGUISHING NOMINAL CLAUSES FROM

区分名词性从句与

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

从属从句

As we saw in the last chapter, nominal clauses are introduced by question words (who, what, where, when, why, how, and others) or by nominalizers (that, if, or whether): 正如我们在上一章所看到的，名词性从句由疑问词（who、what、where、when、why、how 等）或名词化标记（that、if 或 whether）引导：

I know when they arrive. I know where they will arrive. I’ll decide whether we will go. I wonder if the weather will be pleasant. 我知道他们何时到。我知道他们将到达哪里。我将决定我们是否去。我想知道天气是否会宜人。

You can often recognize nominal clauses because they fill noun positions in their sentences: subjects, direct objects, predicate nominatives, appositives, and others. In most sentences that con- 你通常可以识别名词性从句，因为它们充当句中的名词位置：主语、直接宾语、表语、同位语等。在大多数含有

tain nominal clauses, you can replace each nominal with a noun without changing the grammar of the rest of the sentence: 名词性从句的句子中，你可以用一个名词替换每个名词性成分，而不改变句子其余部分的语法：

I know Bob. I know Milwaukee. I’ll decide the matter. 我认识鲍勃。我知道密尔沃基。我将决定这件事。

An exception is the word wonder: 一个例外是 wonder（想知道）这个词：

I wonder if the weather will be pleasant. 我想知道天气是否会宜人。

Wonder can be a transitive verb with a direct object only if the direct object is a nominal clause. wonder 可以是一个带直接宾语的及物动词，但前提是直接宾语必须是一个名词性从句。

Here are some more examples: 以下是一些更多的例子：

My question is what happened to Ralph? [a predicate nominative] What happened to Ralph is the question. [a subject] I have learned what happened to Ralph. [a direct object] 我的问题是：拉尔夫发生了什么事？[表语]　拉尔夫发生了什么事就是这个问题。[主语]　我已经知道拉尔夫发生了什么事。[直接宾语]

Subordinate clauses, which are adverbial, may superficially re- semble nominal clauses because some subordinating conjunctions look like question words and nominalizers: 从属从句具有副词性质，它们在外表上可能类似于名词性从句，因为有些从属连词看起来像疑问词和名词化标记：

I always meet them when they arrive. I’ll meet them whether or not they are on time. I’ll meet them if they are on time. 我总是在他们到达时见到他们。无论他们是否准时，我都会见到他们。如果他们准时，我就会见到他们。

But it’s usually easy to distinguish subordinates from nominals. The subordinates—because they are adverbial—are often moveable; they can be shifted to the beginning or end of the sentence: 但通常很容易把从属从句和名词性从句区分开来。从属从句——因为它们具有副词性质——通常可以移动位置；它们可以被移到句首或句末：

When they arrive, I always meet them. Whether or not they are on time, I’ll meet them. **If **they are on time, I’ll meet them. 当他们到达时，我总是见到他们。无论他们是否准时，我都会见到他们。如果他们准时，我就会见到他们。

Nominal clauses can never be shifted this way. Before we go further, let’s practice distinguishing these clauses. 名词性从句永远不能以这种方式移动。在继续之前，让我们练习区分这些从句。

EXERCISES:

练习：

Distinguish Nominals from Subordinates

区分名词性从句与从属从句

13a. In the following sentences, classify the underlined dependent clauses as either subordinate or nominal. 13a. 在下面的句子中，将加了下划线的从属从句归类为从属从句或名词性从句。

1. I will see if we have any milk.

2. 我去看看我们还有没有牛奶。

3. I will go to the store if we are out of milk.

4. 如果我们没有牛奶了，我就去商店。

5. Whether or not we are out of milk, I will go to the store.

6. 无论我们是否有牛奶了，我都会去商店。

7. I wonder whether we are out of milk.

8. 我想知道我们是否没有牛奶了。

9. I go to the store when we are out of milk.

10. 当我们没有牛奶时，我就去商店。

11. I will know whether we are out of milk.

12. 我会知道我们是否没有牛奶了。

13. I can’t understand how we could be out of milk.

14. 我无法理解我们怎么会没有牛奶。

15. I don’t know why we are out of milk.

16. 我不知道我们为何没有牛奶。

17. Why we are out of milk is what I want to know.

18. 我们为何没有牛奶正是我想知道的。

19. I told you that we would run out of milk.

20. 我告诉过你我们会把牛奶用光的。

13b. In this next set, identify the dependent clauses and classify them as either subordinate or nominal. 13b. 在下面这组句子中，找出从属从句，并将它们归类为从属从句或名词性从句。

1. Go see if Jim is here.

2. 去看看吉姆是否在这里。

3. We will start dinner if Jim is here.

4. 如果吉姆在这里，我们就开始吃晚饭。

5. If Jim is here, we can have dinner.

6. 如果吉姆在这里，我们就可以吃晚饭。

7. If Jim is here is what I want to know.

8. 吉姆是否在这里正是我想知道的。

9. I need to know whether Jim has arrived.

10. 我需要知道吉姆是否已经到了。

11. Whether or not he has arrived, we will now have dinner.

12. 无论他是否到了，我们现在都要吃晚饭。

13. When Jim arrives, we will have dinner.

14. 当吉姆到达时，我们就吃晚饭。

15. I know when Jim will arrive.

16. 我知道吉姆何时会到。

17. Please tell me how we can have dinner if Jim is not here.

18. 请告诉我，如果吉姆不在这里，我们怎样才能吃上晚饭。

Distinguishing Nominal Clauses from Relative Clauses

区分名词性从句与关系从句

Relative clauses and nominal clauses may also resemble each other superficially. 关系从句和名词性从句在外表上也可能彼此相似。

Relative clauses are adjectival. They follow the nouns they modify, and they are introduced by relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, that, which) or by relative adverbs (where, when): 关系从句具有形容词性质。它们跟在它们所修饰的名词之后，并由关系代词（who、whom、whose、that、which）或关系副词（where、when）引导：

There’s the book that I need. This is the place where I lost my keys. 那儿有我需要的那本书（that I need）。这就是我丢失钥匙的那个地方（where I lost my keys）。

In both cases, the relative pronoun or adverb has a grammatical role in its relative clause. The pronouns, of course, have noun functions, and the relative adverbs have adverb functions. 在这两种情况下，关系代词或关系副词在其关系从句中都有一个语法功能。代词当然具有名词的功能，而关系副词具有副词的功能。

Here are two small points that are sometimes helpful: 这里有两个有时很有帮助的小要点：

1. In relative clauses introduced by the relative pronoun that, the pronoun can usually be replaced by which without a significant change in meaning:
2. 在以关系代词 that 引导的关系从句中，该代词通常可以用 which 替换，而意义没有显著变化：

There’s the book that I need. There’s the book which I need. 那儿有我需要的那本书（that I need）。那儿有我需要的那本书（which I need）。

There’s the cat that scratched me. There’s the cat which scratched me. 那儿有抓了我的那只猫（that scratched me）。那儿有抓了我的那只猫（which scratched me）。

2. In relative clauses introduced by the relative pronoun who, the pronoun can usually be replaced by that without a change in meaning:
3. 在以关系代词 who 引导的关系从句中，该代词通常可以用 that 替换，而意义不变：

There’s the man who helped me. There’s the man that helped me. 那儿有帮过我的那个男人（who helped me）。那儿有帮过我的那个男人（that helped me）。

There’s the woman whom I need to see. There’s the woman that I need to see. 那儿有我需要去见的那个女人（whom I need to see）。那儿有我需要去见的那个女人（that I need to see）。

Nominal clauses may superficially resemble relative clauses because they sometimes begin with question words that are identical to relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, or which), or identical to the relative adverbs when and where. 名词性从句在外表上可能类似于关系从句，因为它们有时以与关系代词相同的疑问词（who、whom、whose 或 which）开头，或者以与关系副词 when 和 where 相同的词开头。

Nominal clauses may also begin with the nominalizer that, which is identical to the relative pronoun that. 名词性从句也可能以名词化标记 that 开头，它与关系代词 that 完全相同。

In distinguishing relative clauses from nominal clauses, remember these differences: 在区分关系从句与名词性从句时，请记住这些区别：

1. In relative clauses, the relative pronoun always plays a gram- matical role in its clause, and the relative clause always follows the noun it modifies.

2. 在关系从句中，关系代词总是在其从句中扮演一个语法角色，并且关系从句总是跟在它所修饰的名词之后。

3. Nominal clauses will fill a noun position in the sentence; they do not always follow a noun, though they sometimes do.

4. 名词性从句将充当句中的名词位置；它们并不总是跟在名词之后，尽管有时也会这样。

Also, in the that-if-whether clauses, the nominalizer plays no role at all in its clause, so the nominalizer that absolutely cannot be replaced by which: 此外，在 that-if-whether 从句中，名词化标记在其从句中不起任何作用，所以名词化标记 that 绝对不能用 which 替换：

RIGHT: I know that the weather will be pleasant. IMPOSSIBLE: I know which the weather will be pleasant. 正确：我知道天气将会宜人。不可能：I know which the weather will be pleasant.

RIGHT: I am sure that we have met before. IMPOSSIBLE: I am sure which we have met before. 正确：我确信我们以前见过面。不可能：I am sure which we have met before.

With these points in mind, let’s work with some sentences. 带着这些要点，让我们来练习一些句子。

EXERCISES:

练习：

Distinguish Nominals from Relatives

区分名词性从句与关系从句

13c. Classify the underlined dependent clauses as either relative (adjectival) clauses or as nominal clauses: 13c. 将加了下划线的从属从句归类为关系（形容词性）从句或名词性从句：

1. I know that she likes me.

2. 我知道她喜欢我。

3. That she likes me surprises me.

4. 她喜欢我这件事让我感到惊讶。

5. That is the class that I want.

6. 那是我想要的那个班级。

7. That is the class that challenges me.

8. 那是对我很有挑战性的那个班级。

9. The people who like me are over there.

10. 喜欢我的那些人在那边。

11. I know who likes you.

12. 我知道谁喜欢你。

13. What fascinates me is calculus.

14. 让我着迷的是微积分。

15. We’ll learn why spring begins.

16. 我们将学习春天为何开始。

17. The day when spring begins is next week.

18. 春天开始的日子是下周。

19. I know the place where I can enroll.

20. 我知道我可以在那里报名的那个地方。

13d. Identify the dependent clauses in these sentences and classify them as relative (adjectival) clauses or nominal clauses: 13d. 找出这些句子中的从属从句，并将它们归类为关系（形容词性）从句或名词性从句：

1. I know who that is.

2. 我知道那是谁。

3. I will take the book that is least expensive.

4. 我会拿走那本最便宜的书。

5. There is the fellow whom I’ve met before.

6. 那儿有我以前见过的那个家伙。

7. I know whom you spoke with.

8. 我知道你曾和谁说过话。

9. There is the woman who hired me.

10. 那儿有雇用了我的那个女人。

11. The dog that bit me is in that yard.

12. 咬了我的那只狗在那个院子里。

13. Who steals my purse steals my gum.

14. 谁偷了我的钱包，谁就偷了我的口香糖。

15. I have learned what the answer is.

16. 我已经知道答案是什么。

Distinguishing Subordinate Clauses from Relative

区分从属从句与关系

Clauses

从句

Once again, subordinate clauses are adverbial, but they may superficially resemble relative clauses because some subordinat- ing conjunctions (*that; so . . . that; when; *or where) look like the relative pronoun *that *or the relative adverbs when and where. 再次说明，从属从句具有副词性质，但它们在外表上可能类似于关系从句，因为有些从属连词（*that；so . . . that；when；*或 where）看起来像关系代词 that 或关系副词 when 和 where。

We’ll remind you again about these differences: 我们将再次提醒你这些区别：

1. Subordinate clauses, being adverbial, are usually moveable when they modify verbs, but relative clauses are never moveable.

2. 从属从句具有副词性质，当它们修饰动词时通常可以移动位置，但关系从句永远不能移动。

3. Subordinate clauses modify verbs and, less often, adjectives or adverbs. Relative clauses modify nouns and pronouns.

4. 从属从句修饰动词，较少情况下修饰形容词或副词。关系从句修饰名词和代词。

5. Subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions, while relative clauses begin with relative pronouns or relative adverbs.

6. 从属从句以从属连词开头，而关系从句以关系代词或关系副词开头。

Here are some examples of subordinate clauses, using con- junctions that might be mistaken for relative pronouns or relative adverbs: 以下是一些从属从句的例子，使用了可能被误认为关系代词或关系副词的连词：

I begin my garden when spring begins. (When spring begins, I begin my garden.) 我在春天开始时开始打理我的花园。（当春天开始时，我开始打理我的花园。）

There is hope where there is life. (Where there is life, there is hope.) 哪里有生命，哪里就有希望。（凡有生命之处，就有希望。）

My mother is happy that I have chosen my major. (This subordinate clause, modifying happy, is not moveable.) 我的母亲很高兴，因为我选择了自己的专业。（这个从属从句修饰 happy，不能移动位置。）

Here are examples of relative clauses. The first two use the relative adverbs, and the third uses the relative pronoun that. 以下是一些关系从句的例子。前两个使用了关系副词，第三个使用了关系代词 that。

Spring is the season when I begin gardening. There is the place where I always have my garden. My neighbors enjoy the vegetables that I raise in my garden. 春天是我开始园艺的那个季节（when I begin gardening）。那儿有我总是打理花园的那个地方（where I always have my garden）。我的邻居们很喜欢我在花园里种出的那些蔬菜（that I raise in my garden）。

EXERCISES

练习

Distinguish Subordinates from Relatives

区分从属从句与关系从句

13e. This time identify the dependent clauses in the following sentences and classify them as relative or as subordinate. Some sentences have two dependent clauses: 13e. 这一次，找出下面句子中的从属从句，并将它们归类为关系从句或从属从句。有些句子含有两个从属从句：

1. Because it is late, tomorrow we will see the movie that you want to see.

2. 因为时间已晚，明天我们去看你想看的那部电影。

3. When we saw The Martian, we enjoyed the story about the space traveler who is marooned alone on a planet.

4. 当我们看《火星救援》时，我们很喜欢那个关于独自被困在行星上的太空旅行者的故事。

5. We were quite surprised by the film that we saw last night.

6. 我们对昨晚看的那部电影感到十分惊讶。

7. This is the theatre where we saw that film.

8. 这就是我们看那部电影的那个剧院。

9. Is this the time when the next film is shown?

10. 这是下一部电影放映的时间吗？

11. You should tell your friends when you see a good film.

12. 当你看到一部好电影时，你应该告诉你的朋友们。

13. Where I come from, we have several good movie theatres.

14. 在我来自的地方，我们有好几家不错的电影院。

13f. Finally, here’s an exercise that brings together all the concepts in this chapter. Identify the dependent clauses in the following sentences and classify them as relative, as subordinate, or as nominal clauses: 13f. 最后，这里有一个汇集了本章所有概念的练习。找出下面句子中的从属从句，并将它们归类为关系从句、从属从句或名词性从句：

1. The place that we call home is Peoria.

2. 我们称之为家的那个地方是皮奥里亚。

3. I must see if they are here.

4. 我必须看看他们是否在这里。

5. I know that they have arrived.

6. 我知道他们已经到了。

7. I read an article about the accident that we saw yesterday.

8. 我读了一篇关于我们昨天看到的那起事故的文章。

9. We will see if the storm will hit.

10. 我们将看看风暴是否会袭来。

11. If the storm hits, we will be ready.

12. 如果风暴袭来，我们就做好准备。

13. I know the time when they will arrive.

14. 我知道他们将会到达的时间。

15. The town where I was born is very small.

16. 我出生的那个小镇非常小。

17. I wonder where he was born.

18. 我想知道他出生在哪里。

19. I will go to the airport when he arrives.

20. 当他到达时，我就去机场。

21. Whether we want to go or not, we must be at the airport.

22. 无论我们想不想去，我们都必须到机场。

23. I do not know whether he will be on the plane.

24. 我不知道他是否会在那架飞机上。

还有什么？：动词与语态、不定式与被动补语

Verbs, we’ve said, are regarded as the most important part of English sentences because they contain so much information. That information is reflected in the many forms verbs can take. Here, we examine more of those forms and the changes they cause in other parts of the sentence. 我们说过，动词被视为英语句子中最重要的一部分，因为它们承载了极多的信息。这些信息体现在动词能够采取的诸多形式之中。在这里，我们要考察更多这类形式，以及它们给句子其他成分带来的变化。

VERBS HAVE VOICE: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

动词具有语态：主动与被动

In Chapter 8 on complements, we discussed two classes of action verbs called transitive and intransitive: 在第 8 章关于补语的论述中，我们讨论了动作动词的两个类别，称为及物的和不及物的：

INTRANSITIVE: He sang. TRANSITIVE: He sang a song. 不及物：他唱了。及物：他唱了一首歌。

INTRANSITIVE: She wrote. TRANSITIVE: She wrote a novel. 不及物：她写了。及物：她写了一部小说。

We said that verbs are transitive when they have direct objects, as in the examples above. Linking verbs are never transitive. 我们说，当动词带有直接宾语时，它们就是及物的，如上例所示。连系动词永远不是及物的。

Now we learn another thing: Transitive verbs—and only transitives—are capable of two voices: active and passive. 现在我们再学习一点：及物动词——并且只有及物动词——能够具有两种语态：主动和被动。

With active voice verbs, the subject is the performer of the action and the direct object is the receiver of the action. 使用主动语态动词时，主语是动作的发出者，直接宾语是动作的承受者。

The batter hit the ball. 击球手击打了球。

In passive voice verbs, the subject is the receiver of the action. The performer is deleted from the sentence, or it is shifted to the end of the sentence in a prepositional phrase: 使用被动语态动词时，主语是动作的承受者。动作的发出者被从句子中删去，或者被移到句末，置于一个介词短语之中：

The ball was hit. The ball was hit by the batter. 球被击打了。球被击球手击打了。

In passive verbs, the main verb is always a past participle and the auxiliary just before the main verb is a form of be: 在被动动词中，主要动词永远是一个过去分词，而紧挨在主要动词之前的助动词是 be 的一种形式：

You were made chairman by the club. She has been elected chairwoman. She is known to everyone in the club. 你被俱乐部任命为主席。她已被选为女主席。她为俱乐部里的每一个人所熟知。

REVISING PASSIVES INTO ACTIVES

将被动句改写为主动句

It’s often helpful to rewrite passive sentences as active sen- tences. It’s easy to rewrite this passive sentence: 把被动句改写为主动句往往很有帮助。改写下面这个被动句很容易：

You were made chairman by the club. 你被俱乐部任命为主席。

Simply shift the club to the subject position and you to the direct object position. In this case, chairman becomes an object complement. 只需把 the club 移到主语位置，把 you 移到直接宾语位置。在这种情况下，chairman 变成了宾语补语。

The club made you chairman. 俱乐部任命你为主席。

But what do we do when the sentence contains no performer of the action? 可是，当句子中没有动作的发出者时，我们该怎么办呢？

She has been elected chairwoman. 她已被选为女主席。

In cases like this, we must either locate a performer in the larger context, or leave the passive unchanged. Here are some more passive sentences, and their active voice counterparts: 在这种情况下，我们必须在更大的语境中找出一个动作的发出者，否则就让被动句保持不变。下面是更多的被动句及其对应的主动句：

PASSIVE: The news was heard by me on the radio. ACTIVE: I heard the news on the radio. 被动：我在收音机里听到了这则新闻。主动：我在收音机里听到了这则新闻。

PASSIVE: The essay was graded by the teacher. ACTIVE: The teacher graded the essay. 被动：这篇短文被老师评了分。主动：老师给这篇短文评了分。

PASSIVE: The room was refurnished by our landlord. ACTIVE: Our landlord refurnished the room. 被动：这个房间被我们的房东重新布置了家具。主动：我们的房东重新布置了这个房间的家具。

THE PASSIVE COMPLEMENTS

被动补语

Previously, we’ve discussed complements in active sentenc- es. In particular, we’ve discussed transitive verbs and direct objects, indirect objects, and object complements. 此前，我们已经讨论过主动句中的补语。具体而言，我们讨论过及物动词，以及直接宾语、间接宾语和宾语补语。

Some passive verbs take complements, too, called passive ** complements. Let’s begin with this active voice sentence: 有些被动动词也带补语，称为被动补语**。让我们从下面这个主动语态句子开始：

1. Dad gave Mom her present.
2. 爸爸给了妈妈她的礼物。

Here Mom is the indirect object; her present is the direct object. 这里 Mom 是间接宾语；her present 是直接宾语。

We can rewrite Sentence 1 in the passive voice like this: 我们可以像下面这样把句子 1 改写为被动语态：

2.** Mom** was given her present by Dad. 2.** 妈妈**被爸爸给了她的礼物。

In Sentence 2, Mom is now the subject. We’ve made the subject in Sentence 1, Dad, the object of a preposition. And her present remains the direct object in Sentence 2. This can only be done with active sentences that contain an indirect object as well as a direct object. 在句子 2 中，Mom 现在是主语。我们把句子 1 中的主语 Dad 变成了介词的宾语。而 her present 在句子 2 中仍然是直接宾语。这只能用于那些既含有间接宾语又含有直接宾语的主动句。

Here are more pairs of sentences—the first active and the second passive—with direct objects underlined and indirect objects in bold: 下面是更多成对的句子——第一句为主动，第二句为被动——其中直接宾语加下划线，间接宾语用粗体标出：

ACTIVE: Ed brought Ralph some hot soup. PASSIVE: Ralph was brought some hot soup by Ed. 主动：埃德给拉尔夫端来了一些热汤。被动：拉尔夫被埃德端来了一些热汤。

ACTIVE: Dad showed Jimmy the door. PASSIVE: Jimmy was shown the door by Dad. 主动：爸爸给吉米指了门（示意吉米离开）。被动：吉米被爸爸指了门。

ACTIVE: Mr. Redden read the class a poem. PASSIVE: The class was read a poem by Mr. Redden. 主动：雷登先生给全班读了一首诗。被动：全班被雷登先生读了一首诗。

When the direct object in an active sentence remains the direct object in the passive version of the same sentence, the object in the passive sentence is sometimes called a retained object. But we’ll simply call it the direct object. 当主动句中的直接宾语在相应的被动句里仍然是直接宾语时，被动句中的这个宾语有时被称为保留宾语。但我们还是简单地称它为直接宾语。

Some sentences with object complements can also be made passive: 有些带宾语补语的句子也可以变成被动：

1. The club elected Ralph sixth vice-president.
2. 俱乐部选举拉尔夫为第六副总裁。

Here Ralph is the direct object and sixth vice-president is the object complement. When we make the sentence passive, Ralph becomes the subject: 这里 Ralph 是直接宾语，sixth vice-president 是宾语补语。当我们把这个句子变为被动时，Ralph 变成了主语：

2. Ralph was elected sixth vice-president by the club.
3. 拉尔夫被俱乐部选举为第六副总裁。

In Sentence 2, the object complement of Sentence 1, sixth vice- president, is now a predicate nominative. 在句子 2 中，句子 1 的宾语补语 sixth vice-president 现在变成了主语补语（表语性名词）。

In the following examples, we will see object complements (underlined in the active sentences) become predicate nominatives or predicate adjectives in the passive sentences. The direct objects are in bold: 在下面的例子中，我们将看到宾语补语（在主动句中加下划线）在被动句中变成了主语补语（表语性名词）或主语补语（表语性形容词）。直接宾语用粗体标出：

ACTIVE: We made Mom angry. PASSIVE: Mom was made angry by us. (Predicate adjective) 主动：我们惹妈妈生气了。被动：妈妈被我们惹生气了。（表语性形容词）

ACTIVE: The chairman appointed Bob secretary. PASSIVE: Bob was appointed secretary by the chairman. (Predicate nominative) 主动：主席任命鲍勃为秘书。被动：鲍勃被主席任命为秘书。（表语性名词）

ACTIVE: The class declared Ruthie the winner. PASSIVE: Ruthie was declared the winner by the class. (Predicate nominative) 主动：全班宣布露西为获胜者。被动：露西被全班宣布为获胜者。（表语性名词）

As you may have noticed, all of the passive sentences you read are awkward and wordy. Active versions are often shorter and more direct than passives. Some of the passives might also be improved by simply deleting the prepositional phrases, as in *Bob * was appointed secretary. 你可能已经注意到，你读到的所有被动句都显得笨拙而冗长。主动版本往往比被动句更简短、更直接。有些被动句也可以通过干脆删去介词短语来改进，例如 Bob was appointed secretary（鲍勃被任命为秘书）。

INFINITIVE VERBS

不定式动词

All verbs (except some of the auxiliary verbs) have an important form that we have not yet discussed: the infinitive form. In English, an infinitive verb is simply the first-person present tense of the verb (like buy, sell, cook, bake, talk, walk) preceded by the word to. In this context, to is called a particle and is simply part of the infinitive. All of these are infinitive verbs: 所有动词（除了一部分助动词）都有一个我们尚未讨论的重要形式：即不定式形式。在英语中，一个不定式动词不过是动词的第一人称现在时（如 buy、sell、cook、bake、talk、walk）前面加上 to 这个词。在这种语境下，to 被称为小品词，并且只是不定式的一部分。下面这些都是不定式动词：

to buy to sell to hyperventilate to bake to talk to negotiate to inflate to cook to buy（买） to sell（卖） to hyperventilate（过度呼吸） to bake（烤） to talk（说） to negotiate（协商） to inflate（膨胀） to cook（烹调）

All of these sentences contain infinitive verbs: 下面所有这些句子都含有不定式动词：

My son is learning to speak French. She wants to take a course to learn to speak well in public. We need to meet to discuss the contracts. 我的儿子正在学习说法语。她想修一门课，以便在公开场合说得好。我们需要见面来讨论这些合同。

As you can see, infinitive verbs are important structures that we use every day. We’ll discuss their uses in another chapter soon. 如你所见，不定式动词是我们每天都会用到的重要结构。我们很快会在另一章里讨论它们的用法。

For now, notice the difference between infinitive verbs and prepositional phrases beginning with to. In prepositional phrases, to is typically followed by a noun or pronoun, not a verb. These are prepositional phrases: 现在，请注意不定式动词与以 to 开头的介词短语之间的区别。在介词短语中，to 后面通常跟的是名词或代词，而不是动词。下面是介词短语：

We’re going to Oregon this summer. I’ll mail postcards to my friends. 今年夏天我们要去俄勒冈州。我会把明信片寄给我的朋友们。

And these are infinitives, with verbs—not nouns or pronouns— after to: 而这些是不定式，在 to 之后跟的是动词——不是名词或代词：

We’re going to travel this summer. I’m ready to mail our cards. 今年夏天我们要去旅行。我准备好把我们的卡片寄出去了。

PHRASAL VERBS

短语动词

Phrasal verbs are two-word verbs used as one word. The second word, called a particle, always looks like a preposition but without an object: 短语动词是当作一个词来使用的两个词的动词。第二个词称为小品词，它看起来总像个介词，却没有宾语：

I’ll look up the word. I’ll write out a check. We’ll wait out the storm. She looked in on the kids We signed up for a class. They took off an hour ago. He sat in on the meeting. We have put up with this long enough. 我要查一下这个词。我要开一张支票。我们要熬过这场暴风雨。她顺道去看望了孩子们。我们报名参加了一门课。他们一小时前起飞了。他列席了那次会议。我们忍受这个已经够久了。

Although the particle looks like a preposition, it cannot be the beginning of a prepositional phrase. Notice the differences: 虽然小品词看起来像介词，但它不能成为一个介词短语的开头。请注意下列区别：

I’ll look up the word. (A phrasal verb) I’ll look up the chimney. (A prepositional phrase.) 我要查一下这个词。（短语动词）我朝烟囱里看。（介词短语）

Despite disappointment, they went on. (A phrasal verb) They went on the train. (A prepositional phrase.) 尽管失望，他们继续了下去。（短语动词）他们乘火车去了。（介词短语）

In some phrasal verbs, other words (especially direct objects) can appear between the main verb and the particle: 在某些短语动词中，其他词（尤其是直接宾语）可以出现在主要动词和小品词之间：

I’ll look the word up. I’ll write the check out. He built his confidence up. I’ll check the information out. 我要把这个词查一下。我要把这张支票开出来。他逐步建立了自己的信心。我要把这条信息核查一下。

There is another verbal pattern that may resemble a phrasal verb. Consider these sentences: 还有一种动词结构，可能与短语动词相似。请看这些句子：

I’ve put up with you long enough. I’ll put the book up on the shelf. 我忍受你已经够久了。我要把这本书放到书架上去。

In the first, put up is a phrasal verb. In the second, put is the verb and up is neither a particle nor a preposition, but simply an adverb. (Compare I’ll put the book down or I’ll put the book aside.) 在第一句中，put up 是一个短语动词。在第二句中，put 是动词，而 up 既不是小品词也不是介词，而仅仅是一个副词。（比较 I’ll put the book down（我要把书放下）或 I’ll put the book aside（我要把书放到一边）。）

Don’t confuse the term phrasal verbs with the similar term verb phrase. 不要把术语短语动词与相似的术语动词短语混淆。

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给作者们的要点

1. When to use active and passive verbs.

1. 何时使用主动动词与被动动词

Active voice sentences are often more effective than passive voice sentences. The active voice is usually more concise and direct. Compare these two sentences: 主动语态句子往往比被动语态句子更有力。主动语态通常更简洁、更直接。比较下面两句话：

Chris is reading The Lord of the Rings for the second time. 克里斯正在读《指环王》，这是第二次了。

The Lord of the Rings is being read by Chris for the second time. 《指环王》正在被克里斯读，这是第二次了。

In the first sentence, the subject is actively performing the action. The sentence is clearly about Chris, not the book, so it’s a reasonable choice to make Chris the subject. 在第一句中，主语正在主动地执行动作。这句话明显是在讲 Chris，而不是那本书，所以让 Chris 作主语是一个合理的选择。

But there are times when we do want to focus on the recipient of the action, as in this passive sentence, which we might see in our newspapers or hear in a broadcast: 但有时候，我们的确想要把焦点放在动作的承受者身上，就像下面这个我们可能在报纸上看到、或在广播中听到的被动句：

A convenience store on Fifth Street was robbed last night. 第五大街上的一家便利店昨晚被抢劫了。

If the writer does not yet know who performed this action, the passive may well be the better choice here. (Of course, we might also write Someone robbed a convenience store. . . .) 如果作者还不知道是谁实施了这一行为，那么被动句在这里很可能是更好的选择。（当然，我们也可以写成 Someone robbed a convenience store.（有人抢劫了一家便利店）。……）

Consider this example: 请看这个例子：

John F. Kennedy was elected President in 1960. 约翰·F·肯尼迪于 1960 年被选为总统。

We all know that American voters, or a substantial number of them, elected Kennedy, and the writer may be intending to focus on Kennedy, not the electorate. The passive voice makes sense here. 我们所有人都知道，是美国的选民——或者其中相当数量的人——选举了肯尼迪，而作者可能意在聚焦于肯尼迪，而不是选举人。这里使用被动语态是合理的。

Although the passive certainly has its uses, prefer the active voice unless you have a good reason for the passive. 尽管被动语态当然有其用途，但除非你有充分的理由使用被动，否则应优先考虑主动语态。

EXERCISES

练习

**14a. **Rewrite the following passive voice sentences as active voice sentences, as in this example: 14a. 将下列被动语态句子改写为主动语态句子，如以下示例：

PASSIVE: I was given a prescription by my doctor. ACTIVE: My doctor gave me a prescription. 被动：我被我的医生开了一张处方。主动：我的医生给我开了一张处方。

1. Your letter was received by me.

2. 你的信被我收到了。

3. I was made happy by your letter.

4. 我被你的信弄得开心了。

5. I was given instructions today by my supervisor.

6. 我今天被我的主管给予了指示。

7. My last essay was given a C by my English teacher.

8. 我上一篇短文被我的英语老师给了一个 C。

9. I was seen at the mall by Cheryl.

10. 我被谢丽尔在商场里看到了。

11. The mail was delivered by the postman at noon.

12. 邮件被邮递员在中午送到了。

13. After the symphony was played beautifully by the orchestra,

14. 在交响乐被管弦乐队优美地演奏之后，

the composer was praised by the critics. 作曲家被评论家们赞誉了。

14b. In the passive sentences above, locate, underline, and identify the passive complements: the direct object (DO), the predicate adjective (PA), and the predicate nominate (PN), as in this example: 14b. 在上面这些被动句中，找出、加下划线并识别其中的被动补语：直接宾语（DO）、表语性形容词（PA）和表语性名词（PN），如以下示例：

DO PASSIVE: I was given a prescription by my doctor last night. DO 被动：昨晚我被我的医生开了一张处方。

14c. Distinguish phrasal verbs from verbs followed by prepositional phrases, as in these examples: 14c. 区分短语动词与后接介词短语的动词，如以下示例：

I’ll turn on the television. [Phrasal verb] 我要打开电视机。[短语动词]

That new car can turn on a dime. [Verb with prepositional phrase] 那辆新车能在极小的空间内转弯。[带介词短语的动词]

1. We’ll turn off the highway at the next exit.
2. 我们将在下一个出口驶离高速公路。

Please turn off the radio. 请把收音机关掉。

2. The news comes on at 10 pm.
3. 新闻在晚上 10 点开始播出。

The gifts came on Christmas Eve. 这些礼物是在圣诞前夕送到的。

3. The pumpkin turned into a beautiful coach.
4. 南瓜变成了一辆漂亮的四轮马车。

We’ll turn into this driveway. 我们将拐进这条车道。

4. We will now take up the collection.
5. 我们现在要开始收（奉献）款了。

They took the dresser up the stairs. 他们把那张梳妆台搬上了楼梯。

5. He called out to her before she drove away.
6. 在她开车离开之前，他朝她喊了一声。

He called out the window. 他朝窗外喊了一声。

它们太常见了：名词补论

We’ve not yet dealt with important features of nouns and associated functions and structures, including some you may already know. Here we discuss several of them. 我们尚未涉及名词的一些重要特征，以及与之相关的功能和结构，其中包括一些你可能已经知道的。在这里，我们来讨论其中的若干项。

THE COMMON AND THE PROPER

普通名词与专有名词

You may already know about common and proper nouns. Common nouns are words like man, woman, child, city, state. They name general, nonspecific persons or things. Proper nouns name particular persons or things, and they’re capitalized: Henry, * Annie, Herbert, St. Louis, Missouri. (There are no improper nouns, and if there are, being very proper ourselves, we refuse to discuss them.) 你可能已经知道普通名词和专有名词。普通名词是诸如 man、woman、child、city、state 这样的词。它们指称一般的、非特定的人或事物。专有名词指称特定的人或事物，并且首字母大写：Henry、Annie、Herbert、St. Louis、Missouri。（并不存在不 Proper* 的名词；即便有，鉴于我们自己非常讲究规矩，也拒绝讨论它们。）

Usually, it’s easy to know when to capitalize a noun, but there can be uncertainly about words that may—or may not—be official titles: 通常，我们很容易知道何时该将名词大写，但对于那些可能是——也可能不是——正式头衔的词，有时会拿不准：

I spoke with Doctor Smith yesterday. I spoke with the doctor of obstetrics yesterday. 昨天我与史密斯医生谈了话。昨天我与那位妇产科医生谈了话。

The president of the club lives in that white house. The President lives in the White House. 俱乐部的会长住在那栋白色的房子里。总统住在白宫。

Context often has a great deal to do with this. (When Dr. Smith has his business cards printed, the words Doctor of Obstetrics are capitalized.) To make these decisions, notice what is being done in contexts similar to yours. 语境往往与此大有关系。（当史密斯博士印制他的名片时，Doctor of Obstetrics 这几个词是大写的。）要做出这些判断，请注意在你类似的语境中别人是怎么做的。

Dictionaries can help us make these distinctions, but it’s also helpful to notice what other writers do in similar situations. 词典可以帮助我们做出这些区分，但留意其他作者在类似情形下怎么做也很有帮助。

PLURAL NOUNS

复数名词

As you know, we make most nouns plural by simply adding –s to the end. 如你所知，我们把大多数名词变为复数，只需要在词尾加上 –s。

If a word ends with s, x, z, sh, or ch, we add –es: *basses, boxes, * dishes, churches, and many others. 如果一个词以 s、x、z、sh 或 ch 结尾，我们加上 –es：basses、boxes、dishes、churches，以及许多其他的词。

But there are quite a few exceptions—called irregular ** plurals—and for these, all of us may need to refer to a dictionary at times. The easiest irregular plurals are those that don’t change from singular to plural: *Sheep, deer, *and *moose *don’t change. 但也有相当多的例外——称为不规则复数**——对于这些词，我们所有人有时都可能需要查阅词典。最简单的不规则复数是那些单复数形式不变的词：*sheep（羊）、deer（鹿）*和 moose（驼鹿） 没有变化。

Still other familiar irregulars change a vowel within the word (mice, men, teeth, and more) or add –en: oxen, children. 还有一些我们熟悉的不规则词会改变词内元音（mice、men、teeth 等），或者加上 –en：oxen、children。

With a noun that ends with a consonant and o, we usually use –es for the plural: heroes, zeroes, potatoes. 以辅音加 o 结尾的名词，我们通常用 –es 构成复数：heroes、zeroes、potatoes。

But there are other nouns that end with a consonant and o that take only -s. Some of these are musical terms from Italian: *pianos, * cellos, solos. 但也还有其他以辅音加 o 结尾的名词，只加 -s。其中一些是来自意大利语的音乐术语：pianos、cellos、solos。

A noun that ends with a vowel followed by o also takes only –s for the plural: patios, radios, rodeos, zoos. 以元音加 o 结尾的名词，复数也只加 –s：patios、radios、rodeos、zoos。

With some nouns that end with f or fe, follow the familiar rule: Change the f to v and add –es: calves, halves, knives, wives. But other plurals that end with f or fe take only –s: *roofs, proofs, * handkerchiefs, beliefs. 对于某些以 f 或 fe 结尾的名词，遵循熟悉的规则：把 f 改为 v 再加 –es：calves、halves、knives、wives。但其他以 f 或 fe 结尾的复数只加 –s：roofs、proofs、handkerchiefs、beliefs。

You probably recall that in nouns that end with a consonant and y, we change y to i and add –es: armies, ladies, rallies. But when a vowel precedes y, we add only –s: *bays, boys, alleys, * valleys. 你可能记得，在以辅音加 y 结尾的名词中，我们把 y 改为 i 再加 –es：armies、ladies、rallies。但当 y 前面是元音时，我们只加 –s：bays、boys、alleys、valleys。

And then there are a number of words from Latin or Greek that retain their original plural forms or something similar. To us, these plurals seem quite irregular: 此外，还有许多来自拉丁语或希腊语的词，保留了它们原来的复数形式或与之相近的形式。对我们来说，这些复数显得相当不规则：

alumnae phenomena alumni radii criteria stimuli media theses nebulae vertebrae alumnae（女校友） phenomena（现象） alumni（男校友/校友） radii（半径） criteria（标准） stimuli（刺激物） media（媒体） theses（论文） nebulae（星云） vertebrae（椎骨）

We’ll remind you again that a dictionary always helps with words like these. Most writers will use few of these Latin and Greek plurals, but we all need to remember some, including (probably) these: 我们再次提醒你，遇到这类词，词典总能帮上忙。大多数作者很少使用这些拉丁语和希腊语复数，但我们都需要记住一些，包括（很可能）以下这些：

• medium (the singular) and media, as in *the medium of * television • criterion and criteria • phenomenon and phenomena • crisis and crises • medium（单数）和 media，如 the medium of television（电视媒介） • criterion 和 criteria（标准） • phenomenon 和 phenomena（现象） • crisis 和 crises（危机）

Almost every profession and academic subject has its special terms that include certain irregular plurals, and it’s a good idea to learn them as soon as possible for your professional writing. 几乎每一种职业和学科都有其包含某些不规则复数的专门术语，为了你的专业写作，尽早学会它们是明智的。

It’s also helpful to know that almost no one uses memorandum and memoranda anymore; we simply write memo or memos. And for most purposes today, data is accepted as both singular and plural. 同样有帮助的是要知道，如今几乎没有人再用 memorandum 和 memoranda 了；我们干脆写作 memo 或 memos。而且在今天的大多数场合下，data 既被当作单数也被当作复数来接受。

GREAT INDECISIONS: POSSESSION AND

莫大犹疑：所有格与

APOSTROPHES

撇号

It’s usually easy to indicate possession in English nouns; with singular nouns, we add an apostrophe and –s: *man’s, woman’s, * child’s, Oliver’s, Stanley’s. 在英语名词中表示所有关系通常很容易；对于单数名词，我们加上撇号和 –s：man’s、woman’s、child’s、Oliver’s、Stanley’s。

With plurals, we add a lone apostrophe after the final –s: friends’, students’, teachers’. 对于复数，我们在词尾的 –s 之后加一个单独的撇号：friends’、students’、teachers’。

But the English language sometimes makes things a bit trickier. When a plural does not end in –s, we make the possessive form with the apostrophe first, then –s, like the regular singular possessive: men’s, women’s, children’s. 但英语这门语言有时会把事情弄得复杂一点。当一个复数不以 –s 结尾时，我们构成所有格的形式是先把撇号放在前面，再加上 –s，就像规则的单数所有格一样：men’s、women’s、children’s。

Now comes the frustrating part: Suppose a singular noun ends in –s, like boss or Ross, Charles or Bess? For the possessive, do we add only an apostrophe? (*Ross’, Charles’, or Bess’ *?) Or do we add an apostrophe and –s? (Ross’s, Charles’s, or Bess’s?) 现在到了令人头疼的部分：假设一个单数名词以 –s 结尾，比如 boss 或 Ross、Charles 或 Bess？构成所有格时，我们只加一个撇号吗？（Ross’、Charles’ 或 Bess’？）还是加撇号再加 –s？（Ross’s、Charles’s 或 Bess’s？）

The sad truth is that American English has no universally accepted* way of marking possession in these cases. Some authorities insist on one way, some on another. 令人无奈的真相是，美式英语在这种情况下并没有普遍接受的所有格标记方式。有些权威坚持一种方式，有些则坚持另一种。

In your professional writing, you must find out which way your organization prefers and stick to it. If your organization has no standard way, persuade your leaders to adopt one of the standard style guides (like the Associated Press Stylebook) to answer such questions. 在你的专业写作中，你必须弄清你的机构倾向于哪一种方式，并坚持使用它。如果你的机构没有标准方式，就说服你的领导采用某一种标准文体指南（如 Associated Press Stylebook（《美联社文体手册》））来解答这类问题。

In this book, we create possessives with –’s after singulars ending in s, like this: 在本书中，我们对以 s 结尾的单数采用 –’s 来构成所有格，如下所示：

The boss’s desk Ross’s desk Bess’s desk 老板的办公桌 罗斯的办公桌 贝丝的办公桌

APPOSITIVES

同位语

An appositive is a noun or pronoun that usually appears im- mediately after another noun to rename the first noun and provide additional information about it. The appositive is usually enclosed in a pair of commas, although we may sometimes use dashes or pa- rentheses depending on our desired style, tone, or emphasis. 同位语是一个名词或代词，通常紧接在另一个名词之后出现，用来重命名第一个名词并提供关于它的额外信息。同位语通常用一对逗号括起来，不过有时我们也可能根据想要的文体、语气或强调，使用破折号或括号。

More than one appositive is possible, and sometimes the ap- positive has modifiers of its own: 可以有不止一个同位语，而且有时同位语本身还带有自己的修饰语：

My boss, Mr. Smith, was talking to my parents. 我的老板，史密斯先生，正在和我的父母说话。

Mr. Smith, my wonderful boss, was talking to my parents. 史密斯先生，我那了不起的老板，正在和我的父母说话。

My boss—that bore, that ogre, that man whom I hate more than any other person living, with the possible exception of my English teacher—was telling my parents that I have a bad attitude. 我的老板——那个讨厌鬼，那个怪物，那个比世上任何活人都更让我憎恨的人（也许我的英语老师除外）——正在告诉我的父母，我的态度很不好。

In the sentences above, the appositives all rename the subject (My boss or Mr. Smith), and for that reason they are considered part of the subject. 在上面这些句子中，这些同位语都重命名了主语（My boss 或 Mr. Smith），因此被视为主语的一部分。

In the third example, the dashes are helpful to mark the beginning and end of the long, complicated appositive phrase because the phrase itself contains three commas. 在第三个例子中，破折号有助于标出那个冗长而复杂的同位语短语的开头和结尾，因为这个短语本身包含了三个逗号。

Nominal clauses can be appositives: 名词性从句也可以作同位语：

The physicist’s idea, that multiple universes exist, baffles me. 那位物理学家的想法——即多重宇宙存在——让我困惑不解。

My question—who killed Colonel Mustard in the library?— remains unanswered. 我的问题——谁在图书馆里杀了马斯塔上校？——仍然没有答案。

His topic, why climate change is happening, was timely. 他的话题——为何气候变化正在发生——很及时。

When pronouns are used as appositives, their case (nomina- tive, objective, or possessive) should match the function of the nouns they rename. In the example below, the appositives rename the object (judges) of a preposition, so the pronoun is in the ob- jective case: 当代词用作同位语时，它们的格（主格、宾格或所有格）应当与它们所重命名的名词的功能相匹配。在下面的例子中，同位语重命名了介词的宾语（judges），所以代词用的是宾格：

The photos were given to the judges, Eric and me. 这些照片被交给了评委，埃里克和我。

In the next example, the appositives rename the subject (judges), so the pronoun is in the nominative case: 在下一个例子中，同位语重命名了主语（judges），所以代词用的是主格：

The judges, Eric and I, will study the photos. 评委们，埃里克和我，将研究这些照片。

Sometimes structures look like appositives but are not. For instance, a compound noun phrase, joined with or, can be used to indicate a synonym: 有时某些结构看起来像同位语，其实却不是。例如，一个由 or 连接的复合名词短语，可以用来表示同义词：

The common dog, or *Canis lupus familiaris, belongs to the Canidae family. 普通的狗，即 Canis lupus familiaris（家犬），属于犬科家族。

Mergenthaler’s typesetting machine (or Linotype) was completed in 1884. 梅尔根塔勒的排版机（即 Linotype（莱诺整行铸排机））于 1884 年制成。

The noun after or is not an appositive, despite the punctuation. But remove the conjunction *or *and the same sentences now contain appositives that are, again, synonyms of the preceding noun phrase: 尽管有标点，or 后面的名词并不是同位语。但去掉连词 or 后，同样的句子现在就包含了同位语，而这些同位语又是前面名词短语的同义词：

The common dog, *Canis lupus familiaris, belongs to the Canidae family. 普通的狗，Canis lupus familiaris（家犬），属于犬科家族。

Mergenthaler’s typesetting machine, the Linotype, was completed in 1884. 梅尔根塔勒的排版机，Linotype（莱诺整行铸排机），于 1884 年制成。

Don’t confuse the appositive with adjectives that appear after the noun they modify: 不要把同位语与出现在它们所修饰的名词之后的形容词混淆：

The children, noisy and enthusiastic, dashed through the living room. 孩子们，又吵又热情，冲过了客厅。

THE EXPLETIVE THERE

引导词 there

An expletive, as the term is used in grammar, is a word inserted into a sentence that adds nothing to the meaning but alters word order in ways that are sometimes useful. As we use 引导词（虚词），就语法中使用该术语而言，是指插入句子中的一个词，它不增加任何意义，却会以有时很有用的方式改变词序。正如我们在这里

the term here, expletives are not swear words, although the term sometimes has that meaning, too: “Where are my [expletive deleted] glasses?” 使用该术语，引导词不是骂人的话，尽管这个术语有时也有那种含义：“我的 [此处删除粗话] 眼镜在哪儿？”

The most commonly used expletive is there, which can be added to a sentence to temporarily take the place of the subject. 最常用的引导词是 there，它可以加到句子中，临时取代主语的位置。

This expletive postpones the appearance of the subject, which may be a noun or a pronoun, until after the first word of the verb* * (that is, after the first auxiliary or after the main verb when there is no auxiliary). The expletive is never the actual subject. 这个引导词把主语（可以是名词或代词）的出现推迟到动词的第一个词*之后（也就是说，在没有助动词时，在第一个助动词之后，或在主要动词之后）。引导词永远不是真正的主语。

Compare these pairs of sentences, in which the complete subject is underlined: 比较下面成对的句子，其中完整的主语加了下划线：

A painting by Degas is hanging in the museum. There is a painting by Degas hanging in the museum. 一幅德加的画正挂在博物馆里。There 有一幅德加的画正挂在博物馆里。

Two men were looking for you. There were two men looking for you. 两个男人正在找你。There 有两个男人正在找你。

The expletive there has no grammatical function in the second sentence. It has only a stylistic function, to stand in for the true subject, postponing the subject until later in the sentence, as shown above. 引导词 there 在第二句中没有任何语法功能。它只有一种文体功能，即代替真正的主语，把主语推迟到句子较后的位置，如上所示。

In English, expletive constructions are the usual way to say certain things: 在英语中，引导词结构是表达某些内容的通常方式：

There will now be a short intermission. There 现在将有一段短暂的幕间休息。

We don’t say, *A short intermission will now be *(though we can say We’ll now have a short intermission.) 我们不会说 A short intermission will now be（尽管我们可以说 We’ll now have a short intermission.（我们现在要有一段短暂的幕间休息。））

Somewhere there is a place for us. 某处there 有一个属于我们的地方。

We can’t say, Somewhere a place for us is or *A place for us is * somewhere. 我们不能说 Somewhere a place for us is 或 A place for us is somewhere（某处有一个属于我们的地方 / 一个属于我们的地方在某处）。

In both of the cases above, the expletive there postpones the subject to the end of the sentence, where the subject (*a short * intermission; a place for us) receives special emphasis. 在上述两种情况中，引导词 there 都把主语推迟到句末，在那里主语（a short intermission（一段短暂的幕间休息）；a place for us（一个属于我们的地方））得到了特殊的强调。

Don’t confuse the expletive there with the adverb of place there. Here’s a useful test: Can you replace there with here and retain the original general sense of the sentence? If yes, then there is an adverb. 不要把引导词 there 与表示地点的副词 there 混淆。这里有一个有用的检验方法：你能否用 here 替换 there 而保留句子原本的大意？如果可以，那么 there 就是副词。

ADVERB: Your keys are over there. (Compare: Your keys are over here.) 副词：你的钥匙在那边。（比较：Your keys are over here.（你的钥匙在这边。））

ADVERB: There are your keys. (Compare: Here are your keys.) 副词：那里是你的钥匙。（比较：Here are your keys.（这里是你的钥匙。））

EXPLETIVE: There are keys all over the place. (We wouldn’t usually say, Here are keys all over the place.) 引导词：There 到处都是钥匙。（我们通常不会说 Here are keys all over the place.（这里到处都是钥匙。））

Here are a few more examples of subjects postponed by the expletive there: 这里还有几个主语被引导词 there 推迟的例子：

A dog is growling in the yard There is a dog growling in the yard. 一只狗正在院子里咆哮。There 有一只狗正在院子里咆哮。

A boy is building something on our porch. There is a boy building something on the porch. 一个男孩正在我们的门廊上搭什么东西。There 有一个男孩正在门廊上搭什么东西。

In Chapter 20, we’ll learn about the use of *it *as an expletive. 在第 20 章，我们将学习把 it 用作引导词。

NOUNS OF DIRECT ADDRESS

呼语名词

In written dialogue and letters, as in daily conversation, we sometimes use the names of the people we’re addressing. These names are called nouns of direct address: 在书面对话和书信中，正如在日常交谈里一样，我们有时会用到我们所称呼的人的名字。这些名字被称为呼语名词：

Mr. Smith, I’d like to speak with you, please. I don’t like to be disappointed, and you, Renfru, disappoint me. 史密斯先生，我想和您谈谈，麻烦了。我不喜欢失望，而你，伦弗鲁，让我失望了。

Sometimes nouns of direct address are common nouns that apply to one person or an entire audience: 有时呼语名词是适用于一个人或整个听众的普通名词：

My friend, I hope you will take my advice. 我的朋友，我希望你会接受我的劝告。

This news, my friends, should comfort us all. 这个消息，我的朋友们，应该会让我们大家都感到安慰。

Ladies and gentlemen, welcome to our forty-first annual vase juggling competition. 女士们、先生们，欢迎来到我们第四十一届年度花瓶杂耍大赛。

The noun of direct address is always enclosed by a pair of commas, and it has no grammatical function in the sentence. That is, it’s not considered part of the subject or the predicate. It has a social function: to get the attention of the person addressed, or to clarify who is being addressed. 呼语名词总是被一对逗号括起来，它在句子中没有语法功能。也就是说，它不被视为主语或谓语的一部分。它具有一种社会功能：引起被称呼者的注意，或者澄清被称呼的是谁。

Sometimes, if the context doesn’t resolve ambiguities, readers may confuse nouns of address and appositives: 有时，如果语境不能消除歧义，读者可能会把呼语名词和同位语混淆：

Your supervisor, Mr. Watley, told you to finish that project. 你的主管，沃特利先生，叫你完成那个项目。

If Mr. Watley is the supervisor, then the words Mr. Watley are an appositive. If Mr. Watley is the person being addressed, then Mr. Watley is a noun of direct address. We can usually depend on the larger context to clarify this. 如果沃特利先生就是那位主管，那么 Mr. Watley 这个词就是同位语。如果沃特利先生是被称呼的对象，那么 Mr. Watley 就是呼语名词。我们通常可以依赖更大的语境来澄清这一点。

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给作者们的要点

1. Restrictive and non-restrictive appositives.

1. 限制性同位语与非限制性同位语

Here comes a distinction that is seldom understood and often ignored. 下面要讲一个很少被理解、且常被忽视的区别。

Sometimes the pair of commas is not used with the appositive, depending on the larger context. In the first example below, the writer has more than one daughter; in the second, he has only one: 有时，根据更大的语境，这对方逗号并不与同位语一起使用。在下面的第一个例子中，作者不止有一个女儿；在第二个例子中，他只有一个：

My daughter Mary plays the tuba. My daughter, Mary, plays the tuba. 我的女儿玛丽吹大号。我的女儿，玛丽，吹大号。

In the first example, Mary is a restrictive appositive: it re- stricts (or limits) the meaning of daughter. In the second example, the non-restrictive appositive Mary simply provides supplemen- tary information. (And in this case the commas contribute nothing to understanding the sentence.) 在第一个例子中，Mary 是一个限制性同位语：它限制（或限定）了 daughter 的含义。在第二个例子中，非限制性同位语 Mary 仅仅提供了补充信息。（而在这里，逗号对理解句子毫无贡献。）

Here are more examples of restrictive appositives, followed by non-restrictive examples: 下面是更多的限制性同位语例子，其后跟着非限制性的例子：

RESTRICTIVE: My cousin Bob plays the harmonica. NON-RESTRICTIVE: My cousin, Bob, plays the harmonica. 限制性：我的表兄鲍勃吹口琴。非限制性：我的表兄，鲍勃，吹口琴。

RESTRICTIVE: Our custodian Mr. Halley does good work. NON-RESTRICTIVE: Our custodian, Mr. Halley, does good work. 限制性：我们的管理员哈雷先生工作做得很好。非限制性：我们的管理员，哈雷先生，工作做得很好。

In both cases the restrictive appositive, without the commas, is used to identify a specific cousin or custodian out of many. 在这两种情况下，没有逗号的限制性同位语，都是用来从众多人中辨认出某个特定的表兄或管理员。

When in doubt, add the commas. Few (if any) readers will object, or even notice, if you’re wrong, and the commas seldom if ever alter the meaning of the sentence significantly. But if you add the first comma, don’t forget the second. 拿不准时，就加上逗号。几乎没有（即使有也极少）读者会反对，甚至不会注意到你加错了，而逗号很少——即便有也几乎不会——显著改变句子的意思。但如果你加了第一个逗号，别忘了第二个。

EXERCISES

练习

15a. What’s the difference in writing between regular* *plural nouns, possessive nouns, and plural possessive nouns? Write an example that illustrates each category, using words that have regular plurals. 15a. 普通复数名词、所有格名词和复数所有格名词在书写上有什么不同？请各写一个例子来说明每一类，使用具有规则复数的词。

For example: cats, cat’s, and cats’. 例如：cats（猫，复数）、cat’s（猫的，单数所有格），和 cats’（猫的，复数所有格）。

15b. Write plural, singular possessive, and plural possessive forms of the following nouns: woman, ox, church, tomato, piano, medi- um (e.g., the medium of TV),* boss, and octopus*. Use a dictionary when you need to. 15b. 写出下列名词的复数、单数所有格和复数所有格形式：woman（女人）、ox（牛）、church（教堂）、tomato（番茄）、piano（钢琴）、medium（媒介，如 the medium of TV（电视媒介））、boss（老板），和 octopus（章鱼）。需要时请查词典。

15c. In the following sentences, identify the sentences that con- tain nouns of address, appositives, and expletives, and underline those structures. In sentences with expletives, identify the com- plete subject of the sentence. A sentence may contain more than one of these structures. In some cases, the function of the phrase may not be clear within the limited context. 15c. 在下面的句子中，找出那些含有呼语名词、同位语和引导词的句子，并给这些结构加下划线。在含有引导词的句子中，指出该句的完整主语。一个句子可能含有不止一种这样的结构。在某些情况下，该短语的功能在有限的语境中可能并不清晰。

Examples: 示例：

My brother Ed has left. [Appositive] Dwight, see if his brother has left. [Noun of address] There are no printer cartridges in the supply closet. [There is an expletive, and no printer cartridges is the subject.] 我的兄弟埃德已经离开了。[同位语] 德怀特，去看看他兄弟走了没有。[呼语名词] 储藏室里没有打印机墨盒了。[There 是引导词，而 no printer cartridges 是主语。]

1. Dr. Kildare, you can speak with my assistant.

2. 基尔戴尔医生，您可以和我的助手谈。

3. June, speak with my physician, Dr. Kildare.

4. 琼，和我的医生基尔戴尔医生谈一谈。

5. Your brother, Alice, is remarkable.

6. 你的兄弟，爱丽丝，很不寻常。

7. There is rain forecast for tomorrow.

8. 预报明天有雨。

9. It is clear that Ed is a menace.

10. 很清楚，埃德是个祸害。

哇哦！：感叹词与八大词类

The interjection is a common grammatical category, and a simple one, for any word or group of words that we use to express shock, surprise, pain, joy, admiration, and a wide range of other feelings and responses. 感叹词是一个常见的、也很简单的语法类别，指我们用来表达震惊、惊讶、痛苦、喜悦、赞赏，以及广泛的其它感受和反应任何词或一组词。

INTERJECTIONS

感叹词

Interjections are used by themselves or as part of a sentence: 感叹词可以单独使用，也可以作为句子的一部分：

Good grief! Cool! Oh, no! My. What now? 天哪！酷！哦，不！我的天。现在又怎么了？

Interjections have no distinctive form. They can be single words or longer phrases; they can be joined to sentences by commas or dashes, or they can stand independently, ending with periods, question marks, or exclamation marks: 感叹词没有独特的形式。它们可以是单个词，也可以是较长的短语；它们可以用逗号或破折号与句子连接，也可以独立存在，以句号、问号或感叹号结尾：

What the heck? Well, great. 搞什么鬼？嗯，太好了。

Wow! Oy! 哇！唉呀！

Some interjections serve social purposes: greetings (*Hello, * Goodbye); pauses (Let’s see, Well . . .); politeness (Please, Thanks); or agreement or disagreement (Yes, No, Yeah, Nah, Maybe, Sure! Says you! Yeah, right! Baloney!). 有些感叹词用于社交目的：问候（Hello（你好）、Goodbye（再见））；停顿（Let’s see（让我们看看）、Well（嗯）……）；礼貌（Please（请）、Thanks（谢谢））；或者同意或不同意（Yes（是）、No（不）、Yeah（对）、Nah（不）、Maybe（也许）、Sure!（当然！）Says you!（你才这么说！）Yeah, right!（是啊，没错！）Baloney!（胡说！））。

Some interjections are the kinds of words you use when you drop a hammer on your foot—the words your mother told you to stop using. (You know the words we mean.) 有些感叹词是你在锤子砸到脚时会用的那种词——也就是你母亲叫你别再说的那些词。（你知道我们指的是哪些词。）

Other interjections are not even actual words, but merely sounds that have become conventional ways to express things: Ouch! Yikes! Sheesh! Oof! Oops! Hubba-hubba! *Whoopee! *and, in the upper Midwestern states, *Uff-da! *They are generally easy to recognize. 其他的感叹词甚至不是真正的词，而仅仅是已经成为表达事物的约定俗成方式的声音：Ouch!（哎哟！）Yikes!（呀！）Sheesh!（啧！）Oof!（噢夫！）Oops!（哎呀！）Hubba-hubba!（哇噻！）Whoopee!（嗬！），还有在上中西部各州，Uff-da!（哎呀呀！）。它们通常很容易辨认。

The most important thing to know about interjections is that, although they are useful for self-expression and social interaction, they play no grammatical role in the sentence. In analyzing the grammar of a sentence, you can disregard the interjections. 关于感叹词，最重要的一点是：尽管它们对自我表达和社交互动很有用，但它在句子中不起任何语法作用。在分析一个句子的语法时，你可以忽略感叹词。

Some grammar books classify some of these words as adverbs, though they clearly do not modify verbs, adjectives, or other ad- verbs. (Some could arguably be sentence modifiers, which we’ll examine in Chapter 20.) For our purposes, calling them interjec- tions is sufficient. 有些语法书把其中一些词归类为副词，尽管它们显然不修饰动词、形容词或其他副词。（其中一些或许可以被看作句子修饰语，我们将在第 20 章考察。）就我们的目的而言，把它们称为感叹词就足够了。

THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

八大词类

The eight parts of speech belong to that body of general knowledge all educated people are supposed to possess—like the three branches of government, the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, the five Marx Brothers, the six basic nutrients, the Seven Deadly Sins, and all nine of the eight planets. 八大词类属于所有受过教育的人理应掌握的那类常识——就像政府的三权分立、天启四骑士、马克思五兄弟、六种基本营养素、七宗罪，以及八大行星里全部九颗行星那样。

In other words, they’re an essential idea in the study of language. The eight** ** parts of speech are eight categories used 换言之，它们是语言研究中一个不可或缺的概念。八大词类是用于

in conventional grammar study to account for all the words in English. Every word in English can be placed into one of these categories—or at least one—and we’ve now learned a good deal about all the categories. 在传统语法研究中用来解释英语中所有词的八个类别。英语中的每一个词都可以归入这些类别之一——或至少之一——而我们现在已经对所有这些类别有了相当多的了解。

Three of the parts of speech are nouns or words associated with nouns: 八大词类中有三类是名词或与名词相关的词：

Nouns: Words that stand for persons, places, things, or ideas. Pronouns: Words that take the place of nouns. Adjectives: Words that modify nouns or pronouns. 名词： 表示人、地点、事物或观念的词。代词： 取代名词位置的词。形容词： 修饰名词或代词的词。

Two of the parts of speech are verbs and adverbs: 八大词类中有两类是动词和副词：

Verbs: Words that indicate an action or a state of being. Adverbs: Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. 动词： 表示动作或存在状态的词。副词： 修饰动词、形容词或其他副词的词。

Two of the parts of speech are connecting words: 八大词类中有两类是连接词：

Conjunctions: Words that connect phrases and clauses to other phrases or clauses; they indicate some grammatical relationship between the connected units. Prepositions: Words that connect a noun or pronoun (the object of the preposition) with other words in the sentence to create adjectival or adverbial phrases. 连词： 把短语和从句与其他短语或从句连接起来的词；它们表示被连接单位之间的某种语法关系。介词： 把名词或代词（介词的宾语）与句子中的其他词连接起来，从而构成形容词性短语或副词性短语的词。

And the eighth part of speech are the interjections, which we’ve just met. Interjections, again, are exclamatory words and phrases used to express feelings and reactions. 而第八大词类就是感叹词，我们刚刚才认识它。重申一下，感叹词是用来表达感受和反应的感叹性词语。

An important part of analyzing the grammar of any sentence is to place each word into one of the eight parts. That’s not always easy. To be honest, a few words just don’t fit well into any of these eight categories. The expletive there is one. 分析任何句子语法的一个重要环节，就是把每个词归入八大词类之一。这并不总是容易的。老实说，有少数词就是不能很好地归入这八类中的任何一类。引导词 there 就是其中之一。

A FORM AND ITS FUNCTIONS

形式与其功能

In analyzing the grammar of a sentence, it’s helpful to distin- guish between a form and its functions: 在分析一个句子的语法时，区分形式与其功能是有帮助的：

The form can be any word, like a noun or a verb. It can also be a larger unit constructed upon a part of speech, like a verb phrase or a prepositional phrase. 形式可以是任何一个词，比如名词或动词。它也可以是一个建立在某一词类之上的更大的单位，比如动词短语或介词短语。

The function is the grammatical role the form plays in a particular sentence. A noun can function as a subject or direct object. Or, as we’ve seen, nouns can have other functions: They can be indirect objects, predicate nominatives, objects of a preposition, or other functions. Similarly, prepositional phrases can be adjectival or adverbial. 功能是形式在某个具体句子中所起的语法作用。名词可以充当主语或直接宾语。或者，正如我们已看到的，名词还可以有其它功能：它们可以是间接宾语、主语补语（表语性名词）、介词的宾语，或其它功能。同样地，介词短语可以是形容词性的，也可以是副词性的。

A number of forms (nouns, verbs, modifiers) assembled to- gether can build larger phrases and clauses that have their own functions. A relative clause is a form that has an adjectival func- tion in a sentence; a subordinate clause has an adverbial function. 若干个形式（名词、动词、修饰语）组合在一起，可以构建出具有自身功能的更大的短语和从句。关系从句是一种在句子中具有形容词性功能的 form（形式）；从属从句具有副词性功能。

The function of any form is defined by the way it is used in a particular sentence, that is, by its context. You can’t look at a single word in isolation and define its function. There are exceptions: It’s usually safe to say that the is an article, used adjectivally. But in the sentence that you just read, the was used as a noun, as the subject of a clause: “The is an article.” 任何形式的功能都是由它在某个具体句子中的使用方式、即由它的语境所定义的。你不能孤立地看一个词就界定它的功能。也有例外：通常可以稳妥地说 the 是一个冠词，用作形容词。但在你刚才读到的那句话里，the 被用作名词，作为从句的主语：“The 是一个冠词。”

Consider this word: bill. Is it a noun or a verb? To answer, we need context: 考虑这个词：bill。它是名词还是动词？要回答，我们需要语境：

I will bring your monthly bills. He will bill me every month. 我会把你每月的账单带来。他每个月都会给我寄账单（结账）。

In the first sentence, bill is a noun, and it functions as a direct object. In the second sentence, bill is a transitive verb; it functions as the main verb of the sentence. 在第一句中，bill 是名词，它充当直接宾语。在第二句中，bill 是及物动词；它充当句子的谓语动词。

Or consider these sentences: 或者考虑这些句子：

I am rising early tomorrow morning. I like rising early. I like to watch the rising sun. 我明天早上要早起。我喜欢早起。我喜欢看冉冉升起的太阳。

In the first sentence, rising has the form of a verb (because of its –ing suffix), and it also has the function of a verb, as part of a progressive tense verb,* am rising*. 在第一句中，rising 具有动词的形式（因为它的 –ing 后缀），并且也具有动词的功能，作为进行时态动词 am rising 的一部分。

In the second sentence, rising again has the form a verb, the present participle of rise, but it has the function of a noun, the direct object of the transitive verb like. (What does the speaker like? He likes rising early.) 在第二句中，rising 再次具有动词的形式，即 rise 的现在分词，但它具有名词的功能，是及物动词 like 的直接宾语。（说话者喜欢什么？他喜欢早起。）

In the third sentence, rising still has the form of a verb, but it has the function of an adjective, modifying sun. (We’ll soon learn more about using verbs nominally and adjectivally.) 在第三句中，rising 仍然具有动词的形式，但它具有形容词的功能，修饰 sun。（我们很快会学到更多关于把动词当作名词和形容词使用的内容。）

There are other challenges in classification: For instance, how do we classify particles? You’ll recall that a particle, as we have used the term, is the first element in an infinitive verb (as in to look * or to do*: I need time to look at my list of things to do) or the second element in a phrasal verb (look up a word). We simply consider these particles as parts of their verbs; they are not regarded as separate words. 分类上还有其他的难题：例如，我们如何对小品词进行分类？你会记得，小品词就我们使用该术语而言，是不定式动词的第一个成分（如 to look 或 to do：I need time to look at my list of things to do（我需要时间看看我要做的事的清单）），或者是短语动词的第二个成分（look up a word（查一个词））。我们干脆把这些小品词视为它们动词的一部分；它们不被当作独立的词。

And the expletive there, since it doesn’t participate in the grammatical structure of a sentence, doesn’t fit neatly into any grammatical category. 而引导词 there，由于它不参与句子的语法结构，因此不能整齐地归入任何语法类别。

Although we have not discussed the distinction between form* * and function* before, we’ve used the distinction here and there in this book. Early on, we said that nouns could be used adverbially, and that some adverbs could be used nominally. Form and function are important ideas in grammar. 尽管我们此前没有专门讨论过形式与功能*的区别，但我们在本书中已处处用到这一区分。早先我们说过，名词可以用作副词，而有些副词可以用作名词。形式与功能是语法中的重要概念。

We’ll see that this matter of form and function becomes particularly important as we move on to chapters about verbals. 我们将会看到，随着我们进入关于动词性词语（verbals）的章节，形式与功能的问题变得尤为重要。

EXERCISES

练习

16a. Write from memory the Eight Parts of Speech. Then define them and check your work by referring to the early pages of this chapter. 16a. 凭记忆写出八大词类。然后给它们下定义，并参照本章前面几页来核对你的答案。

16b. In the following sentences, use context to identify both the form and function of the underlined words. 16b. 在下面的句子中，利用语境指出划线词的形式和功能。

1. In the increasingly chaotic country, university students are
2. 在这个日益混乱的国家里，大学生们正在

revolting. 造反。

2. Defend them if you like, but I’m tired of these revolting
3. 如果你愿意就为他们辩护吧，但我已经受够了这些令人

students. 厌恶的学生。

3. We were jogging around the block.

4. 我们当时正在街区周围慢跑。

5. All of us enjoy jogging.

6. 我们所有人都喜欢慢跑。

7. He will replace the shattered lamp.

8. 他将更换那盏破碎的灯。

9. He shattered it accidentally.

10. 他不小心把它打碎了。

11. This rose bud is for you.

12. 这朵玫瑰花蕾是给你的。

13. I gave you a rose bud, for I care about you.

14. 我给了你一朵玫瑰花蕾，因为我关心你。

15. I wanted to get you more, but I couldn’t afford it.

16. 我想给你弄更多，但我买不起。

17. I bought you nothing but this rose bud.

18. 我除了这朵玫瑰花蕾，什么也没给你买。

那些“动词化”的动词形式：动名词与分词

A verbal is a verb that doesn’t mind its own business. It is a verb in form with a different function—it’s a verb behaving like another part of speech. (The nerve of some verbs.) A verbal can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 一个**动词性形式（verbal）**是一种不安分守己的动词。它在形式上是动词，却发挥着不同的功能——它像其他词性一样行事。（某些动词真是放肆。）动词性形式可以充当名词、形容词或副词。

While verbals are used as other parts of speech, they retain some of the important qualities of verbs. For example, they can take direct objects and indirect objects and other complements, and they can be modified by adverbs. Because they’re versatile, verbals are enormously useful to writers who understand the power of verbs and want to work as much action into their sentences as possible. 虽然动词性形式被用作其他词性，但它们保留了动词的一些重要特征。例如，它们可以带直接宾语、间接宾语和其他补语，并且可以被副词修饰。因为它们用途广泛，对于那些懂得动词的力量、并希望在句中尽可能多地注入动作的作者来说，动词性形式极为有用。

There are only three kinds of verbals, and in this chapter we’ll discuss the two simplest kinds: gerunds and participles. The infinitives will come next. 动词性形式只有三种，本章我们将讨论其中最简单的两种：动名词（gerunds）和分词（participles）。**不定式（infinitives）**将在下一章讨论。

GERUNDS: VERBS AS NOUNS

动名词：充当名词的动词

A gerund appears only in the present participle form (the –ing form) and it’s always used as a noun: 一个动名词只以现在分词形式（即 –ing 形式）出现，并且总是用作名词：

I enjoy baking. And I enjoy hiking. （我喜欢烘焙。我也喜欢徒步。）

And I also enjoy reading. Once, I tried reading and hiking at the same time, and it did not go well. （我也喜欢阅读。有一次，我试着一边阅读一边徒步，结果并不顺利。）

In all the sentences above, the gerund phrase (underlined) functions as a direct object. Some gerunds, created from transitive verbs, can also take their own direct objects. 在上面所有句子中，动名词短语（下划线部分）都充当直接宾语。有些由及物动词构成的动名词也可以带自己的直接宾语。

In both of the following sentences, the underlined portion includes the gerund, which is the direct object of the sentences, and another noun phrase, which is the direct object of the verbal: 在下列两个句子中，下划线部分既包含作为句子直接宾语的动名词，也包含另一个名词短语，即该动词性形式的直接宾语：

I enjoy baking cakes. I enjoy reading books. （我喜欢烤蛋糕。我喜欢读书。）

Gerunds can also take indirect objects: 动名词也可以带间接宾语：

I enjoy baking my friends cakes. I enjoy reading my son books. （我喜欢给朋友们烤蛋糕。我喜欢给儿子读书。）

Notice that these last examples are each, in a way, a combination of two clauses. The second example could be said to contain these two ideas: 注意，最后这几个例子在某种意义上都是两个从句的组合。第二个例子可以说包含这样两个意思：

I enjoy reading. I read my child books. （我喜欢阅读。我给我的孩子读书。）

We reduced the second sentence above (I read my child books) into a gerund phrase: I enjoy reading my child books. 我们把上面的第二个句子（I read my child books）简化成了一个动名词短语：I enjoy reading my child books.

That’s why gerund phrases (and verbal phrases of all kinds) are sometimes called reduced clauses. They are not true clauses, but the information that they contain could be the basis of a clause. 这就是为什么动名词短语（以及各类动词性短语）有时被称为简化从句。它们并不是真正的从句，但其中包含的信息可以成为从句的基础。

We can also make gerunds out of transitive verbs with object complements: 我们还可以用带宾语补足语的及物动词构成动名词：

We regret making Albert angry. （我们后悔把艾伯特惹生气了。）

In this sentence, the entire gerund phrase, making Albert angry, is the direct object of regret. Within the phrase, Albert is the direct object of making, and angry is the object complement describing Albert. 在这个句子中，整个动名词短语 making Albert angry 是 regret 的直接宾语。在该短语内部，Albert 是 making 的直接宾语，而 angry 是描述 Albert 的宾语补足语。

Gerunds created from linking verbs can be used with predicate nouns and predicate adjectives. In the next two sentences, the verbal phrase is a direct object of the transitive verb enjoys: 由系动词构成的动名词可以与谓语名词和谓语形容词连用。在下面两句中，该动词性短语是及物动词 enjoys 的直接宾语：

Stanley enjoys being a** comedian**. Oliver enjoys being funny. （斯坦利喜欢当喜剧演员。奥利弗喜欢表现得滑稽。）

In both these sentences, the gerund being is created from a linking verb. In the first sentence, comedian is a predicate nominative; in the second, funny is a predicate adjective. 在这两句中，动名词 being 都是由系动词构成的。第一句中，comedian 是谓语名词（表语）；第二句中，funny 是谓语形容词（表语）。

Gerunds can be subjects: 动名词可以作主语：

Singing is his favorite pastime. Becoming a musician is his goal. (The phrase a musician is the predicate nominative of becoming.) （唱歌是他最喜欢的消遣。成为音乐家是他的目标。（短语 a musician 是 becoming 的谓语名词。））

Below, singing has a direct object: 下面这句里，singing 带有直接宾语：

Singing hymns is his favorite pastime. （唱赞美诗是他最喜欢的消遣。）

And here, gerund phrases are appositives: 而在这里，动名词短语作同位语：

His pastime, singing hymns, has made him many friends. （他的消遣，唱赞美诗，为他赢得了许多朋友。）

His other pastime, telling naughty stories, has lost him a few friends. （他的另一项消遣，讲顽皮的故事，让他失去了一些朋友。）

A gerund phrase can also be the object of a preposition: 动名词短语还可以作介词的宾语：

He always has time for singing hymns. He has talked about becoming a musician （他总是有时间唱赞美诗。他谈起过要成为音乐家）

PARTICIPLES: VERBS AS ADJECTIVES

分词：充当形容词的动词

Now we need to remember two forms of verbs: The present participles of verbs (the –ing forms) and the past participles of verbs (the forms used with have, as in have known or had seen). 现在我们需要记住动词的两种形式：现在分词（–ing 形式）和过去分词（与 have 连用的形式，如 have known 或 had seen）。

These forms are used to create adjectival phrases that precede the noun. In some sentence structures, with the right punctuation, they can also follow the noun: 这些形式用来构成前置于名词的形容词性短语。在某些句子结构中，加上合适的标点，它们也可以跟在名词之后：

The soaring airplane roared overhead. The airplane, soaring, roared overhead. （那架翱翔的飞机在头顶轰鸣。那架飞机，翱翔着，在头顶轰鸣。）

Walking quickly to the door, the detective threw it open. The detective, walking quickly to the door, threw it open. （侦探快步走向门口，猛地推开了门。侦探，快步走向门口，猛地推开了门。）

We watched the snow falling softly. We watched the softly falling snow. （我们看着雪轻轻飘落。我们看着轻轻飘落的雪。）

Shaken from his fall, the old man sat for a moment. The old man, shaken from his fall, sat for a moment. （老人从跌倒中缓过神来，坐了一会儿。老人，从跌倒中缓过神来，坐了一会儿。）

Heard across the street, the scream disturbed the neighbors. The scream, heard across the street, disturbed the neighbors. （那声尖叫隔着街道都能听见，惊扰了邻居们。那声尖叫，隔着街道都能听见，惊扰了邻居们。）

As these examples illustrate, the participle can be accompanied by adverbs. And the participle phrase should usually be close to the noun it modifies. 如这些例子所示，分词可以带有副词。而且分词短语通常应紧靠它所修饰的名词。

Participles created from transitive verbs can have their own direct objects: 由及物动词构成的分词可以带有自己的直接宾语：

Shoveling snow, Mr. Lochenhocher grew tired. （洛亨霍克先生铲着雪，渐渐累了。）

Reading the poem aloud, Mrs. Mays grew emotional. Taking his time, Bill is recovering from the accident. （梅斯太太大声朗读这首诗，动了感情。比尔不慌不忙地慢慢来，正从事故中恢复。）

Participles can also have indirect objects as well as direct objects: 分词也可以同时带有间接宾语和直接宾语：

Reading my daughter a book, I grew sleepy. Giving my friend the news, I chose my words carefully. （给女儿读着书，我渐渐困了。把消息告诉朋友时，我字斟句酌。）

Participles can also have direct objects and object complements: 分词也可以带直接宾语和宾语补足语：

The committee, electing Mrs. Klomstok chairwoman, enraged Mr. Lochenhocher. （委员会选举克洛姆斯托克夫人为主席，这激怒了洛亨霍克先生。）

Participles created from linking verbs can have predicate nominatives or predicate adjectives: 由系动词构成的分词可以带有谓语名词或谓语形容词：

Mr. Dusenberg, being a wise man, refused to argue. （杜森伯格先生，作为一个明智的人，拒绝争论。）

Becoming angry, Mr. Lochenhocher yelled across the street at Ruthie. （洛亨霍克先生变得愤怒，隔着街道对露西大喊。）

Remaining calm, Ruthie continued practicing the bagpipes. （露西保持冷静，继续练习风笛。）

(Notice that practicing the bagpipes is a gerund phrase.) （注意，practicing the bagpipes 是一个动名词短语。）

POINTS FOR WRITERS

写给作者的要点

1. Dangling Participles

1. 悬垂分词

As you’ve just seen, we usually put participles close to the nouns they modify, either before or after. Avoid the infamous dangling participle, a carelessly used participial phrase that doesn’t apply logically to a nearby noun. The result is often nonsense: 正如你刚才所见，我们通常把分词放在它所修饰的名词附近，或前或后。要避免臭名昭著的悬垂分词——一种粗心使用的分词短语，它在逻辑上并不修饰附近的任何名词。其结果往往荒谬不堪：

Rowing across the river, the boat struck the ice. Dancing to the jazz, the orchestra played its closing number. Falling softly, we watched the snow. Drinking noisily, Grandmother watched the thirsty dog. （船划过河流，撞上了冰。（逻辑不通）随着爵士乐起舞，管弦乐队奏起了闭幕曲。（逻辑不通）雪轻轻飘落，我们看着。（逻辑不通）祖母喧闹地喝着，看着那只口渴的狗。（逻辑不通））

Please don’t do this. Please? 请别这样写。拜托了？

EXERCISES

练习

Because students often find verbals difficult, we’ve provided many different kinds of exercises in this chapter and the next to help you learn these concepts. (Don’t thank us; just send money.) 因为学生常常觉得动词性形式很难，我们在本章和下一章提供了许多不同类型的练习，帮助你掌握这些概念。（不必谢我们，打钱就好。）

17a. Identify the functions (subjects, direct objects, and others) of the underlined gerunds in these sentences: 17a. 指出下列句子中下划线动名词的功能（主语、直接宾语等）：

1. Farming is his business.
2. 务农是他的生意。
3. His business is farming.
4. 他的生意就是务农。
5. He likes farming.
6. 他喜欢务农。
7. He likes raising corn and soy beans.
8. 他喜欢种玉米和大豆。
9. He will stay with farming.
10. 他会继续务农。
11. His profession, raising corn and soy beans, is a difficult one.
12. 他的职业，种玉米和大豆，是一项艰苦的行当。

17b. Now locate the gerunds in the following sentences and identify their functions: 17b. 现在找出下列句子中的动名词，并指出它们的功能：

1. His hobby is biking.

2. 他的爱好是骑自行车。

3. Biking is his hobby.

4. 骑自行车是他的爱好。

5. He is interested in biking.

6. 他对骑自行车感兴趣。

7. His hobby, biking, is a popular one.

8. 他的爱好，骑自行车，是一项受欢迎的活动。

9. Biking ten miles a day is a challenge.

10. 一天骑十英里是一项挑战。

11. His goal is biking ten miles a day.

12. 他的目标是每天骑十英里。

13. He makes time for biking ten miles a day.

14. 他腾出时间每天骑十英里。

15. She likes being a police woman.

16. 她喜欢当一名女警察。

17. Being a patrol officer is her ideal job.

18. 当一名巡警是她理想的工作。

Review

复习

Before we go to the next exercises, let’s have a quick review. Gerunds, as we’ve seen, are present participles used as nouns for many nominal functions: 在进入下一组练习之前，我们先快速复习一下。如我们所见，动名词是现在分词，被用作名词，承担多种名词性功能：

Running is his hobby. (A gerund functioning as a subject) （跑步是他的爱好。（动名词作主语））

He likes running laps. (A gerund phrase as a direct object) （他喜欢绕圈跑。（动名词短语作直接宾语））

Her hobby is playing the tuba. (A gerund phrase as a predicate nominative) （她的爱好是吹大号。（动名词短语作谓语名词/表语））

We also use present participles to create progressive tense verbs, using the verb to be as auxiliaries: 我们也用现在分词构成进行时态动词，使用动词 to be 作助动词：

He is playing the tuba. （他正在吹大号。）

She was always playing the tuba. I have been playing the tuba. （她总是在吹大号。我一直在吹大号。）

So gerunds can be distinguished from progressive tense verbs in at least two ways: 因此，动名词与进行时态动词至少可以从两方面区分：

1. Gerunds always function as nouns, in a nominal position in the sentence.
2. 动名词总是充当名词，处于句中的名词性位置。
3. Progressive tense verbs always have an auxiliary, which is some form of the verb to be.
4. 进行时态动词总是带有助动词，即动词 to be 的某种形式。

Back to the exercises: 回到练习：

17c. Using the guidelines above, classify the gerunds and progressive verbs in the underlined portions of these sentences: 17c. 运用上述准则，将下列句子下划线部分中的动名词和进行时态动词分类：

1. Breathing very cold air can be painful.
2. 呼吸极冷的空气会令人疼痛。
3. I love baking cookies.
4. 我喜欢烤饼干。
5. He found much joy in singing.
6. 他在唱歌中找到了许多快乐。
7. He was singing all the time.
8. 他一直在唱歌。
9. You learn a lot from reading books.
10. 你从读书中学到很多。
11. When you are driving, time passes quickly.
12. 当你开车时，时间过得很快。

17d. Do the same thing in the following sentences, in which the gerunds and progressive tense verbs are not marked for you: 17d. 对下列句子做同样的判断，其中动名词和进行时态动词没有为你标出：

1. He made a career of programming computers.

2. 他把编写计算机程序当成了一份职业。

3. I was programming computers.

4. 我当时在编写计算机程序。

5. Programming is my job.

6. 编写程序是我的工作。

7. I love juggling.

8. 我喜欢玩杂耍。

9. I am juggling all the time.

10. 我一直在玩杂耍。

11. Juggling is what I love to do.

12. 玩杂耍是我喜欢做的事。

13. Once my hobby was juggling.

14. 曾经，我的爱好是玩杂耍。

Review

复习

Here’s another short review concerning verbs and participles: 这里是另一段关于动词和分词的简短复习：

You will recall that the progressive tense verbs, which use present participles to build verb phrases, use the verb to be as auxiliaries: 你会记得，进行时态动词用现在分词构成动词短语，并以动词 to be 作助动词：

He is driving. She was always playing golf. I will be knitting a sweater. （他在开车。她总是在打高尔夫球。我将会在织毛衣。）

We also use past participles or present participles to create adjectival phrases that usually appear just before or after the nouns they modify: 我们也用过去分词或现在分词构成形容词性短语，通常出现在它们所修饰名词的前面或后面：

Sleeping for hours, John recovered from his cold. The dog, barking madly, wouldn’t be quiet. Driven to exhaustion, Bob had to rest. （睡了几个小时，约翰从感冒中恢复了。那只狗，疯狂地叫着，不肯安静。被逼到筋疲力尽，鲍勃不得不休息。）

They can also appear after linking verbs: 它们也可以出现在系动词之后：

He seemed disappointed by the news. He became interested in the new book. （他似乎对那消息感到失望。他对那本新书产生了兴趣。）

So we can distinguish participles from progressive tense verbs or perfect tense verbs in at least two ways: 因此，我们至少可以从两方面把分词与进行时态动词或完成时态动词区分开来：

1. Participles always function as adjectives and usually appear before or after a noun phrase, or after a linking verb.
2. 分词总是充当形容词，通常出现在名词短语之前或之后，或系动词之后。
3. Progressive tense verbs always have some form of be as an auxiliary; perfect tense verbs always have some form of have as an auxiliary.
4. 进行时态动词总是以 be 的某种形式作助动词；完成时态动词总是以 have 的某种形式作助动词。

Back to the exercises: 回到练习：

17e. Using the guidelines above, classify the underlined portions of these sentences as participles, as perfect tense verbs, or as progressive tense verbs. 17e. 运用上述准则，将下列句子下划线部分归类为分词、完成时态动词，或进行时态动词。

1. Bob was sleeping for hours.
2. 鲍勃睡了几个小时。
3. Bob, driven to exhaustion, had to rest.
4. 鲍勃被逼到筋疲力尽，不得不休息。
5. Martha has driven Bob to work all week.
6. 玛莎整个星期都开车送鲍勃上班。
7. Swimming laps, Bob begins his day briskly.
8. 游了几圈泳，鲍勃神清气爽地开始了一天。
9. Bob, biking for miles, was exhausted.
10. 鲍勃骑了数英里车，筋疲力尽。
11. Exhausted, Bob nevertheless became intrigued.
12. 虽然筋疲力尽，鲍勃却产生了兴趣。
13. Driving to work, Martha saw a red fox.
14. 开车上班途中，玛莎看见一只红狐。

17f. Do the same thing in the following sentences, in which the participles and verbs are not marked for you: 17f. 对下列句子做同样的判断，其中分词和动词没有为你标出：

1. Snoring loudly, Susan slept through her history class.
2. 苏珊大声打着鼾，睡过了整节历史课。
3. Susan was snoring loudly in Calculus.
4. 苏珊在微积分课上大声打着鼾。
5. Driven mad by the noise, Claude threw everything in sight.
6. 被噪音逼得发疯，克劳德把眼前的一切都扔了出去。
7. Claude had not slept for two days.
8. 克劳德已经两天没睡了。
9. Claude appeared worn and worried.
10. 克劳德显得疲惫而忧虑。
11. Playing the sax, Al woke up the neighbors.
12. 吹着萨克斯，阿尔吵醒了邻居们。
13. Written for Susan, the instructions ordered her to drop her history class.
14. 这些指示是为苏珊写的，命令她退掉历史课。

17g. Using the guidelines discussed in this chapter, classify the underlined portions of the following sentences as gerunds, as participles, as perfect tense verbs, or as progressive tense verbs. 17g. 运用本章讨论的准则，将下列句子下划线部分归类为动名词、分词、完成时态动词，或进行时态动词。

1. His hobby is reading Shakespeare.

2. 他的爱好是读莎士比亚。

3. He is always reading Shakespeare.

4. 他总是在读莎士比亚。

5. Reading Shakespeare aloud, he entranced the audience.

6. 大声朗读莎士比亚，他让听众听得入迷。

7. Alicia, reading Shakespeare, ignored the speaker.

8. 阿莉西亚读着莎士比亚，对演讲者置若罔闻。

9. Driving at night can be dangerous.

10. 夜间开车可能很危险。

11. I don’t like driving at night.

12. 我不喜欢夜间开车。

13. Driving late at night, Ed was exhausted.

14. 深夜开车，埃德筋疲力尽。

15. Exhausted, Ed drove on.

16. 筋疲力尽，埃德继续开车。

17. Ed was driving three nights a week.

18. 埃德一周有三个晚上在开车。

19. He has exhausted himself with the driving.

20. 他因开车把自己累垮了。

17h. In these sentences, the gerunds, participles, and verbs are not marked for you. Locate and classify the gerunds, participles, perfect tense verbs, and progressive tense verbs: 17h. 下列句子中没有为你标出动名词、分词和动词。找出并将它们归类为动名词、分词、完成时态动词，或进行时态动词：

1. Seen through the window, the room was a mess.
2. 从窗外看，房间一片狼藉。
3. We have seen the traffic through the window.
4. 我们通过窗户看到了交通状况。
5. My hobby is playing the tuba.
6. 我的爱好是吹大号。
7. Bob is playing the tuba.
8. 鲍勃正在吹大号。
9. Playing the tuba, Bob disturbed the library patrons.
10. 吹着大号，鲍勃打扰了图书馆的读者。
11. Feeling sick, Gloria went home.
12. 格洛丽亚感到不舒服，回家了。
13. Gloria was feeling sick.
14. 格洛丽亚当时感到不舒服。
15. Her remarks were about reading Poe.
16. 她的言论是关于读爱伦·坡的。
17. Sailing on the lake is Cal’s hobby.
18. 在湖上航行是卡尔的爱好。
19. I like sailing on the lake.
20. 我喜欢在湖上航行。
21. I am sailing again this summer.
22. 今年夏天我又要去航行了。